Page 1 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 1 REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the meaning of the term remote sensing

2. Explain the meaning of the term geographical information system

3. Explain aerial photographs, satellite images and recognizing information

4. Explain geographical information

5. Identify relationships among phenomena by analyzing geographical information.

Meaning of the term remote sensing

It is the technique of obtaining information

about objects using special equipment that

are not in physical contact with the objects

being investigated.

Or it refers to the science of acquiring

information about an object or a

phenomenon using equipment which is not

in physical contact with them.

Energy required to detect the target is called

electromagnetic radiation. The total amount

of energy that strikes an object is called

incident radiation. Electromagnetic

radiation is the energy that travels through

space in wave form at a speed of light. The

intensity of light being detected is then

translated into information that a computer

can read.

Electromagnetic wave has two main

characteristics such as

a. Frequency

It is a number of wave peaks that pass

through a fixed point per unit time.

b. Wavelength

It is the distance between two wave

peaks.

NB: Longer wavelength has less energy

content as compared to shorter wavelength

which contains more wave peaks.

How remote sensing works

 Electromagnetic radiation is produced

from the sun and other sources that reach

the Earth’s surface.

 On the Earth’s surface, some energy is

absorbed by surface features, some is

reflected and the remaining is emitted to

remote sensors which analyse, process it

to produce sensor data output and

transmit it to receivers on Earth’s

surface.

 Then the satellite images are displayed

in computers, TV screens and other

devices on the Earth’s surface. Satellite

Page 2 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

images show information like shape of

land, drainage systems and weather

phenomenon.

The total amount of radiation that the

Earth’s surface receives is called incident

radiation. Sensor is a device that detects

emitted electromagnetic radiation from an

object. These sensors are mounted on

satellites, aeroplanes, helicopters and other

equipment.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

It is a range of all forms of electromagnetic

waves. Types of electromagnetic spectrum

are:

a. Radio waves

 Produced from radio and TV

transmitters

 They are the longest wavelengths

 They also carry cellular signals.

b. Microwave radiation

 It is produced from short radio

transmitters which are used for

cellular communication, satellite

communication and in microwave

ovens.

 It can be used to provide information

like temperature.

c. Infrared Radiation (IR)

 They are produced by warm and hot

objects such as sun.

 It cannot be seen with naked eyes,

unless you wear vision goggles.

 It is used in remote control devices

that we use for TVs in our homes.

 Some snakes have this light to detect

their prey.

d. Visible Light

 It is visible light that enables to see

things and the colours.

 It is a narrow spectrum that helps us

to identify colours.

 It is produced by fireflies, light bulbs

and stars.

e. Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation

 It is produced by the sun and other

hot objects in space.

 It has shorter wavelength, higher

frequency and higher energy than

light energy.

 It is only visible by some insects like

bees.

 It responsible for causing skin

cancer, however it is filtered out by

the presence of ozone layer in the

stratosphere

f. X-Rays

 They are produced naturally by

neutron stars.

 Artificially, they are produced by x-

rays.

 X-rays are used in hospital by

doctors to detect broken bones. It is

also used at check points to detect

the contents of travelers’ bags.

g. Gamma Rays

 They are produced by bursting

cosmic or astronomic objects in the

universe.

 They are used in hospitals to detect

the inside the patients’ bodies.

Page 3 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Process in remote sensing

Energy interaction with the atmosphere

and Earth’s surface

a. It is reflected off the object

b. It is absorbed by the object

c. It is transmitted through the object

Basic components of remote sensing

a. Sensor: an instrument used to record

data such as computerized cameras.

b. Platform: a vehicle used to on which the

sensor is mounted such as tractors and

aircrafts.

Types of remote sensing platforms

a. Land-based platforms

They are used to record detailed

information about the surface which is

compared with collected information

from aircrafts or satellite. Examples

include, towers tanks, tall buildings,

ladders, tractors and vans.

b. Aerial platforms

They use aircrafts, balloons and

helicopters with sensors.

Advantages

 Very detailed images are taken

 It facilitates the data collection at any

time and at any point of the Earth’s

surface.

c. Satellite platforms

 Satellite is any heavenly object that

revolves around the planet. For

example, moon is the satellite of

planet Earth. Artificial satellites are

launched in space for remote

sensing, communication and

telemetry services. Solar panels are

used to provide energy the

operations of satellites.

 Images sent by satellites are viewed

on the computer monitors or TV

screens using computer software

called Google Earth and

Geographical Information Systems

(GIS).

 Satellites have sensors that react to

bands of specific frequency and

wavelength. The sensors convert

photons falling on electrical signals

that are assigned numerical or digital

values which are then transmitted

receiving stations to the ground.

Then, computers on the ground

convert them into the readable

information or images.

Types of satellite platforms

a. Low Erath Orbits (LEO)

 It is placed at the lowest altitude of

about 16km where there is minimum

gravitational influence.

 It helps in installing new installing

new instruments, fixing broken

things and inspecting damages of

instruments.

Page 4 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It orbits the Earth for 9 minutes. It

moves very quickly.

 It aids short time visits and

experiments in space.

Disadvantages

 Atmospheric drag slows down the

satellites.

 It is not effective due to their speed.

b. Geosynchronous Satellites (GEO)

 They are placed at very high altitude

of about 36 000km above the sea

level.

 It orbits the Earth for 24 hours and

remains at the same point above the

position above the Earth’s surface

every day.

Uses

 To monitor weather at one point of

the Earth.

 Use for telecommunication services.

 Beam television signals directly into

the house. That why a TV antenna

points to the same position.

Disadvantages

 It is expensive to launch

 It is not to repair it from the shuttle

c. Geostationary Orbit Satellite

Platform

 The satellite remains high above the

Equator.

 It remains in the same position where

it is always directly above the same

spot on the Earth’s surface..

d. Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO)

 They are located at oval orbits which

enable them move slowly where they

can be useful and quickly where they

are of little use.

 It moves faster when it is closer to

the Earth than when it is farther

away.

e. Sun –synchronous or Polar Orbiting

Satellite Platform

 They are placed near the Earth’s

surface at the altitude ranging from

700km to 1000km above the sea

level.

 They are numerous.

 They travel from north to south

poles.

 They are placed in relation to the sun

to ensure consistent illumination

conditions when acquiring images.

Types of remote sensors

a. Passive sensors

 It detects radiation energy that is

reflected or emitted by the object

under observation.

It is used during daylight. Types of

passive sensors include the

following:

1. Gamma-ray spectrum: it

measures the amount of gamma –

ray energy emitted by upper soil

due to radioactive decay

Page 5 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

minerals. It is used for mineral

exploration.

2. Aerial camera: it mounted on

aeroplanes and low orbiting

satellites to take aerial

photographs.

3. Our eyes: we capture light

energy and converts into images.

b. Active sensors

They provide their own source of energy

to detect objects. Some types of active

sensors are:

1. LIDAR (Light Detection and

Ranging)

It is a technology that measures

distance by illuminating a target with

a laser light and analyzing the

reflected light. It combines the

distance with location to build an

image of a terrain composition.

2. RADAR (Radio Detection and

Ranging)

This device uses reflected radio

waves to detect to determine the

presence, location and speed of

distant objects.

Uses

o It is used for air traffic control:

to guide planes upon take off and

landing. It also helps to track

down other planes on the ground

and in the air.

o It is used by the military to

detect the position of enemies

and guide the weapons.

o It is used for road traffic

control for speed trap.

o It is used for weather

forecasting for detecting storms

and rains.

3. SONAR (Sound Navigation

Ranging)

This device uses sound to detect the

position of objects underground or in

water by transmitting sound waves

and measuring time for an echo to

come after hitting an object.

Geographical Information System (GIS)

Meaning of GIS

It is a computer-based mapping tool that can

show where particular events, features or

conditions are on Earth and give other

information about them as well.

It is used for map making and show different

types of data one set of data is layered on

top of each other that show spatial patterns

and relationships such as elevation, drainage

system, amount of precipitation and mineral

reserves.

Components of GIS

a. Appropriate hardware

It includes computer with large memory

capacity, video and hard disk storage

space.

Page 6 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

b. Appropriate software

It provides the functions and tools that

people need to store, analyse, manipulate

and display information. It is easy to

make maps showing different

information for a particular area.

Properties of good GIS mapmaking

software

 Ability to enter and work with land

features and information such as

names and location of features or

places.

 Database management system to

organize and manage information.

 A map creator to make maps easily

viewed, rational and simple to

interpret and analyse.

 Simple and usable graphical

interface (GUI). For more accessible

software to users.

c. Data

It is the information that you want

display on the map. The two types of

data are:

i. Spatial data

It is information about ground

features such as roads, political

boundaries, rivers, forests,

buildings and towns.

ii. Attribute data

It shows information on the area of

interests like population

concentration or density and land

use patterns..

d. People

GIS requires people with very high

technical skills (in ICT) who understand

how GIS works and have knowledge

about data being searched.

Aerial photographs, satellite images and

recognizing information

Photograph is an image or picture created by

a camera. There are ground–level and

aerial photographs.

Aerial Photograph

It is a photograph which is taken high up in

the air by aeroplanes or satellites.

Difference between maps and aerial

photograph

Map

Photograph

 It is true to scale

 It is not true to

scale. Scale is

reduced with

distance from

camera.

 Maps show

features only put

by map makers

 Pictures include a

lot of details of

which some are not

required

 Maps take a long

time to draw

 Aerial photographs

can be taken within

a short period of

time

 Maps have labels

and symbols that

represent real

ground features

 Aerial photographs

do not have names

of places and

heights of places

 It is easy to

 Features are

Page 7 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

interpret ground

features on maps

using symbols

and signs

 Maps show only

those features that

are important for

the purpose of the

map.

difficult to identify

and interpret

without symbols

 Photographs show a

lot of detail viewed

through the camera.

Types of Aerial Photographs

i. Vertical Aerial Photograph

It is taken at the right angle to the

ground. There is no hidden ground.

There are also two types of oblique

photographs such as high and low

oblique.

ii. Oblique Aerial Photograph

It is taken at an inclined angle to the

ground. It has hidden ground and the

landscape is not true to scale because

pictures near the camera look bigger

than those away from the camera.

There are two types of oblique aerial

photographs such as low oblique and

high oblique aerial photographs.

High oblique shows horizon while low

oblique does not show horizon.

Uses of aerial photograph

 It helps cartographers to make maps

 It helps to determine land use and

environmental conditions.

Satellite Images

 Satellite is a man – made object that is

placed in orbit around the earth or planet

in order to collect and transmit

information.

 Satellite image is the image of the whole

or part of the earth taken by artificial

satellites. They are photographs of the

earth from space.

 The modern technique of observing the

earth space using satellite sensors and

aircraft cameras is called remote

sensing. Remote sensing means sensing

things from a distance.

 Aerial photographs and satellite images

are used by cartographers to make

maps.

 Cartography is the art of making maps;

therefore, cartographers are the map

makers.

 Computer software used to view satellite

images of the earth is called Google

Earth. This allows people to zoom and

glide over the photographs of the earth’s

surface and explore every part of the

earth.

Differences between satellites images and

aerial photographs

 Aerial photographs have better

resolution while satellite images have

poor resolution as they are taken very far

and disturbed by weather conditions.

 Aerial photographs are taken at a lower

altitude while satellite images are taken

from above the atmosphere in space by

satellites orbiting the earth.

 Aerial photographs are taken by cameras

in aeroplanes, drones or balloons

whereas satellite images are taken and

recorded by electronic scanners mounted

on satellites in space.

Page 8 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Advantages of Satellite Images

 Large amount of data is collected

within a short time.

 Information collected does not

recognize international boundaries

hence there are no delays in collecting

data.

 The data can be taken from areas where

it is difficult to reach e.g. deep seas

 Promote human security as it is used by

the army.

 Forms a basis for research.

Disadvantages of Satellite Images

 Since are taken from space, they are

disturbed by weather changes such as

clouds.

 There are low quality pictures since they

are taken from very far from the ground.

Applications of Aerial Photographs and

Satellite Images

 Used by cartographers to make maps.

 In archaeology, these are used for

locating minerals under the ground.

 Town planners use them in urban studies

to develop and locate infrastructure,

roads and new facilities.

 In climate, these are used for detecting

climatic hazards such as droughts, floods

Uses of GIS and remote sensing

1. They are used in environmental impact

assessment

2. They are used by the law enforcement

agencies to identify crime hotspots.

3. They are used in the military operations

for attacking and defensive purposes.

4. They are used for disaster management

purposes.

5. They help in making good natural

resource management plans and policies

that control the use of natural resources.

6. They help in urban planning by

providing.

7. They provide information about farming

areas, insect pests, crop diseases, fire,

flooding and environmental issues.

8. They help doctors to identify the disease

outbreaks and the causes.

9. They are used for water, road and air

transport control

10. They are used in business management

to promote the marketing functions like

advertisements.

11. They are used to monitor weather

phenomenon.

Other technologies related to GIS

a. Desktop Mapping

It is computer software that supports the

creation of thematic maps of diverse

application.

b. Database Management System

(DBMS)

It is a computer program designed to

large set of structured data and run

operations on the data requested by

numerous users.

c. Remote sensing

It is art and science of making

measurement of the Earth using sensors

which collect data.

d. Global Positioning System (GPS)

It is a worldwide global navigation

system that provides information from

the orbiting satellites. GPS is used to

detect position, speed of moving objects

and depth of places among others.

Google Earth

Relationships among phenomena by

analyzing geographical information

Page 9 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

GIS helps to understand the

relationship that is there which helps

in the following areas:

 It is used by policy makers to identify

the source of threats to the environment.

 It helps to monitor rainfall patterns

 It assists in mapping the resource

locations in an area.

 It also assists in planning of

communication routes.

 It helps in studying agriculture and

environmental degradation.

 It helps to monitor wildlife migratory

patterns.

Uses of GIS and remote sensing

 It is used for mapping large scale fires

 It helps to explore mineral deposits

under the ground.

 It helps to explore and study the floor

and marine features.

 It is used in checking and monitoring

elements of weather such as clouds.

 It helps in monitoring geological

activities and natural disasters.

Page 10 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 2 WETLANDS IN MALAWI

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the term wetland

2. Locate wetlands on a map of Malawi

3. Describe the flora and fauna of wetlands

4. Explain the importance of wetlands

5. Explain human activities that threaten wetlands

6. Explain strategies for managing wetlands

Wetland refers to an extensive low lying

land which is seasonally waterlogged. It is

also called swamp, marsh or bog.

Examples of wetlands in Malawi:

 Vwaza Marsh

 Ndindi Marsh

 Elephant Marsh

 Lake Chilwa Marsh.

Importance of Wetlands

 They are habitat for birds and other

endangered species.

 They control flooding by holding

excessive rain water temporary before it

joins the main water body.

 They prevent water pollution by:

- Filtering out sediments

- Absorbing pollutants

- Filtering pollutants.

 They beautify the environment.

 They provide a ground for scientific

studies and research.

 They are good place for spawning,

breeding and nursery for fish.

 They reduce the impact of global

warming by locking up carbon and

preventing it from entering the

atmosphere.

Human Activities that Threaten Wetlands

 Draining wetlands for crop cultivation

and settlements

 Deforestation

 Construction of dams and water

diversion structures that keep wetlands

dry.

 Dumping wastes into the wetlands that

endanger life there.

 Mining

Page 11 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Climate change: prolonged drought and

excessive evaporation deplete water

resources.

Strategies for Managing and protecting

Wetlands

 Declaring wetlands as protected areas by

law, e.g. Vwaza Marsh Game Reserve.

 Afforestation and reafforestation in

deforested wetlands.

 Making and enforcing laws about the

protection of wetlands to avoid

encroachment into

 Practicing proper land husbandry

practices.

 Providing public awareness on the

importance of conserving wetlands

Page 12 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 3 WILDLIFE IN MALAWI

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the meaning of the term wildlife

2. Identify wild life reserves in Malawi

3. Explain the importance of wildlife in Malawi

4. Describe activities endangering wildlife in Malawi

5. Identify conservation measures of wildlife species

Wildlife refers to animals and plants that

live in natural undomesticated state. They

are not tamed by people. They include:

1. Birds (Guinea fowls)

2. Mammals (antelopes, rhinos, elephants,

lions, leopard, buffaloes, hyenas,

monkeys).

3. Reptiles (lizards, alligators).

4. Snakes

5. Insects

6. Aquatic animals (fish)

7. Amphibians (frogs)

8. Micro – organism

9. Trees, e.g. Mulanje cedar

Wildlife Habitat

Wildlife habitat refers to physical

environment where animals live and get the

necessities of its life. The wildlife habitats

include the following:

a. Lakes and rivers

b. Forest

c. Wetlands

d. Nature sanctuaries

e. National parks

f. Game reserves

Importance of wildlife

 They provide nutritious food to people.

 Plant and animal resources provide raw

materials. E.g. timber for making

furniture.

 Wild plants and animals are used for

manufacturing of medicine.

 Plant and animal materials provide

medicine.

 Forests are good sites for scientific

studies and investigations.

 They are of high aesthetic value which

attracts tourists and bring money to the

country.

Wildlife Reserves in Malawi

a. National Parks

Nyika National Park

Kasungu National Park

Liwonde National Park

Page 13 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Lengwe National Park

Lake Malawi National Park

b. Game Reserves

Nkhotakota Game Resrve

Vwaza Game Resrve

Majete Game Resrve

Mwabvi

c. Nature sanctuaries

 Lilongwe Nature Sanctuary

 Michiru Nature Sanctuary

d. Forest reserves

Dzalanyama Forest Reserve in Dedza

/Lilongwe

Chikangawa Forest Reserve in Mzimba

Chongoni Forest Reserve in Dedza

Ntchisi Forest Reserve

Endangered Species

It is a population of plants or animals which

is at a risk of complete extinction because it

either small in number or threatened by

changing environmental conditions.

Examples of Endangered Species

a. Aquatic Species: Hippopotamuses,

birds and other fish species like chambo,

cichlids (mbuna fish) tooth fish, cod,

sharks, whales and Whales.

b. Wildlife Species: golliras, leopards,

lion, tiger, rhinoceros, eagles and other

birds. This also includes other plant or

tree species like muwanga and naphini.

How Human Activities Endanger Wildlife

Species

a. They destroy food and habitat of wildlife

b. They kill plants and animals themselves.

c. They deplete soil moisture

Human Activities that Endanger Wildlife

Species

 Overfishing

 Deforestation.

 Setting bushfire.

 Drainage of wetlands.

 Deforestation.

 Poor farming methods that encourage

soil erosion.

 Poaching.

 Expanded farming and settlement.

 Destruction of physical habitat.

Natural Factors that Endanger Wildlife

Species

 Geological disasters like volcanoes and

earthquakes.

 Climate change that alter ecological

balance.

 Wildlife overpopulation that animals

compete for space, food and water.

 Poor environmental conditions that fail

to support the living organisms, such as

inadequate food.

Page 14 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Possible Solutions to Endangered Species

 Making laws to prohibit hunting,

transporting and trading animal plants

and products of endangered species.

 Establishing protected areas like national

parks and game reserves.

 Afforestation and reafforestation in order

to restore the habitat and food of

wildlife.

 Providing public awareness on the

importance of wildlife.

 Afforestation and reafforestation.

Ways of Preserving Endangered Species

 Protecting rare plant and animal species.

 Establishment of conservation areas such

as national park and game reserves.

 Catching game where they are prone to

extinction or overpopulated and

relocating them elsewhere.

 Civic education on environmental

management.

 1Legislating and enforcing policies that

protect environment.

Reasons for Preserving Endangered

Species

 They improve and maintain ecological

balance.

 They provide medicine

 They modify climatic conditions by

cleaning air and contributing to

hydrological cycle.

 They beautify the countryside that attract

tourists.

 They provide food to human beings.

Wildlife Conservation Efforts

 Declaring the world environmental

commemoration days by the United

Nations, e.g. World Water Day.

 Establishing environmental conservation

clubs such as Wildlife Clubs and Village

Beach Committees.

Page 15 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 4 WASTE MANAGEMENT

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the meaning of the term waste

2. Identify different types of wastes

3. Explain the effects of poor waste disposal

4. Discuss the term waste management

5. Identify strategies for managing wastes

6. Discuss the importance of managing waste

Meaning of Waste

Waste is any unwanted material that has

been discarded by its user.

Types of Wastes

Wastes are classified into groups based on

source and properties.

Types of Wastes Based on Sources

a. Municipal wastes

They come from homes, markets, streets

and other public places such as garbage,

plastics, metals, pieces of glass and rags.

b. Industrial wastes

They come from companies and

factories such textiles, breweries,

petroleum industries, food processing

industries, cement industries and plastic

manufacturing industries.

c. Construction and demolition wastes

They are debris that comes from the

construction and demolition of various

infrastructures such as metals, glasses

wood, concrete and excavated soil.

d. Agricultural wastes

These are crop residues, animal remains

and empty pesticides containers.

e. Clinical or medical wastes

They are waste from hospitals or health

centers such as blood from patients,

surgical tools, used bandages and cotton

wool.

Types of Wastes Based on Properties

a. Biodegradable wastes

They are wastes that can decompose by

means of bacteria. They include fruit

peels, wood, food remains, sewage and

human wastes.

b. Non-degradable wastes

They do not decompose and be dissolved

into the soil. Examples include plastic

papers objects, tin cans, scrap metals and

remains of household appliances.

c. Hazardous wastes

They are wastes that are toxic to people,

animals and general environment such as

nuclear waste, pesticides, explosives and

electronic waste.

Page 16 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

d. Non-hazardous wastes

They are beneficial and can be reused,

such as food remains, papers, crop

residues and rags.

Waste Management

Waste management refers to the activities

that deal with waste before and after it is

used as well as its minimization, transfer,

storage, recycling and final disposal.

Ways of Managing Wastes

a. Prevention or Reduction

It means eliminating or using less

quantities or amounts of resources so as

to reduce amounts of wastes. E.g. one

must use handbags for shopping instead

of buying plastic bags that litter

everywhere.

b. Re-using

This means using the same product for

repeatedly either for the same or

different purpose. For example,

discarded bottles can be used for storing

other liquids.

Advantages of Re-using

 It is cheap as it requires less energy,

labour and capital.

 It does not need treatment that causes

pollution.

 They substitute natural resources

which help to conserve natural

environment.

 It is cost saving for customers and

business.

Disadvantages of Re-using

 It is time-consuming to sort and

prepare the materials.

 Transporting and cleaning the

materials have environmental costs.

 Some materials are hazardous to

human health.

Disadvantages of Re-using

 Recycling of products is very

expensive since it requires energy.

 Recycled products are not durable.

 Wastes can easily spread diseases

due to lack of proper handling.

c. Recycling

It means processing or treating wastes to

make them usable in future. E.g. paper

recycling is a good example.

Advantages of Recycling

 It helps to reduce pollution.

 It helps to conserve resources for

next use.

 It provides jobs to some people.

 Recycled materials are cheap.

 It helps to reduce the amount of

wastes which minimizes the need for

more landfills and incinerators.

d. Resource recovery

It involves extracting more valuable

resources from wastes which can later be

recycled. For example, some can be used

to produce energy.

e. Incineration

It is the process of destroying or

disposing of hazardous wastes by

burning. Biological medical wastes are

destroyed in this away. Incinerators are

constructed like inn hospitals.

Page 17 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Advantages of Incineration

 It reduces the bulk of wastes form

environment.

 Wastes are used to produce energy

during burning.

 Incineration helps to destroy disease

– causing organisms and poisonous

chemicals.

Disadvantages of Incineration

 Incineration destroys important

wastes that would be recycled.

 Incinerator locations produce bad

smell.

 Building of incinerators is very

expensive.

 Operation and maintenance of

incinerators require skilled

personnel.

 Ash from incinerators contains toxic

substances which pollute the

environment

f. Landfill

It involves disposing of wastes by

burying or excavating them into the

ground. It is commonly and traditionally

used in homes and industries.

Ministry of Local Government through

the City Engineer Department provides

the City Cleaning Services. The

department identifies the landfill sites.

Already established landfill sites in the

cities include:

a. Lilongwe

Mchinji Road Landfill

Area 38 Landfill

Area 55 Landfill

b. Blantyre

Mzedi Landfill

c. Zomba

Chikowi Landfill

Songolo Landfill

d. Mzuzu

Mchengautuwa Landfill

Advantages of Landfill

 It is relatively cheap.

 The wastes can be reused for energy

production.

 Landfills can be for the production

of compost manure.

 Landfills have specific location

which can easily be monitored.

Disadvantages of Landfill

 Dangerous liquids that flow from

landfills pollute the surrounding

water and soil resources.

 Poisonous gases generated from

landfills contribute to greenhouse

effect.

 Landfills occupy land that would be

used for other purposes.

 Landfills harbor dangerous and

disease – causing organisms such as

mosquitoes and houseflies.

Importance of Proper Waste

Management

 It enhances public health by eliminating

hazardous wastes.

 Some wastes can be turned into organic

manure.

 Transporting, recycling and collection of

some wastes provide employment to

people.

 It helps to maintain clean and attractive

environment.

Page 18 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It helps to prevent pollution in the

environment.

Challenges of Waste Management in

Developing Countries

 Lack of funding from government to

remove and manage wastes in cities and

towns.

 Local authorities lack capacity to

monitor and enforce regulations about

waste management.

 Rapid urbanization which increases

consumption and releasing of energy.

 Lack of knowledge on waste

management.

Page 19 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 5 RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Identify climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives in Malawi

2. Explain other climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives

3. Describe policies, measures and instruments to mitigate and adapt to climate change in

Malawi

4. Identify international agreements on climate change

5. Explain the challenges and benefits of the international climate change agreements

6. Explain ways of promoting climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives at

community level

Climate change brings about negative

effects on the livelihoods. Some of the

effects include global cooling and global

warming, heavy storms, floods, frequent

drought, outbreak of diseases and insect

pests. These challenges disrupt the human

activities on Earth and the quality of life.

Therefore it is needed to take a step in to

come up with climate change mitigation and

adaption initiatives in order to maintain and

improve the quality of nature.

Mitigation means actions or efforts that are

aimed at reducing the harmful human

activities that cause climate change. It

involves preparing or planning for the next

climate change problems such as floods.

Climate change adaptation refers to

people’s efforts to reduce the impact of

climate change on vulnerable communities

and their livelihoods.

Climate change mitigation and

adaptation initiatives in Malawi

a. The National Environmental Policy

(NEP)

It aims at reducing the emission of

greenhouse and encouraging various

stakeholders to reduce the impact of

climate change.

b. The Malawi National Strategy on

Sustainable Development (MNSSP)

It helps to reduce the damage caused by

the effects of climate change. It also

promotes sustainable industrial

development.

c. The National Biodiversity Strategy

and Action (NBSA)

It focuses key biodiversity issues and

various intervention programmes by

various stakeholders.

d. The National Adaptation Programme

of Action (NAPA)

It helps to reduce vulnerability of

communities to adverse effects of

climate change and increase adaptability

to climate change by:

e. The Malawi Government and

Development Strategy (MGDS)

Page 20 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

It deals with disaster management and

climate change.

Other climate change mitigation and

adaptation initiatives

 Countries are promoting afforestation

and bio-fuel plantation programmes.

 The Malawi Government is promoting

the development and use of renewable

energy resources such as water, wind

and sun.

 Promoting the use of low-cost modes of

public transport instead of large buses.

 Integrating issues of climate change into

the school curriculum to raise awareness

to the public.

 The government is promoting family

planning in order to reduce pressure on

natural resources.

Policies, measures and instruments to

mitigate and adapt to climate change in

Malawi

a. National Environmental Policy (NEP)

It aims at reducing the adverse impact of

climate by targeting on emission of

greenhouse gases and air pollution.

b. The Malawi National Strategy on

Sustainable Development

It aims at reducing the damage and loss

of life caused by natural disasters as well

as providing concrete actions for

implementing NEP.

c. The National Biodiversity Strategy

and Action Plan

It targets key biodiversity issues. It

ensures monitoring, recovery and

conservation of biodiversity that help to

support local community livelihoods in

the areas of food security and medicine.

d. The National Adaptation Programme

of Action

The policy promotes community

community’s capacities to adapt to the

effects of climate change through

various measures such as:

 Improving sustainable rural

livelihood.

 Improving agricultural production

in low rainfall areas

 Restoring forests in Shire Valley

areas.

 Promoting disaster preparedness to

effects of climate change.

e. The Malawi Growth and Development

Strategy

One of its priority areas is climate

change and disaster management.

Inadequate funding from government

and effective early warning systems

affect the implementation of the policy.

International agreements on climate

change

a. United Nations Framework

Conventions on Climate Change

It deals with greenhouse emission

mitigation, adaptation and finance.

b. Kyoto Protocol

Its main aim is to reduce the emission of

greenhouse gases such as

chlorofluorocarbon, methane, carbon

dioxide and sulphur hexafluoride.

c. Copenhagen Accord

It aims at limiting the global

temperatures by 2

C. The conference

also agreed to support the developing

countries in mitigating and adapting to

the effects of climate change.

d. The Tripartite Agreement on Climate

Change Adaptation and Mitigation

Page 21 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

It was adopted by COMESA and SADC

in order to address the impact of climate

change through successful adaptation

and mitigation actions aimed at building

socio-economic resilience of

communities through Climate-Smart

Agriculture (CSA).

e. Global Methane Initiative

It encourages the use of clean energy to

reduce the release of greenhouse gases.

It also ensures proper waste disposal.

f. Group on Earth Observations

It observes the global climate and

coordinates the climate change

observations throughout the world.

g. Carbon Sequestration Leadership

Forum

It focuses on developing and improving

technologies that reduce concentration of

carbon dioxide in the Earth’s

atmosphere.

Challenges faced by international climate

change agreements

 Inadequate financial resources for

achieving mitigation and adaptation

programmes.

 Inadequate and contradicting

information about climate change.

 Failure by countries or organisations and

industries to comply with environmental

conservation principles

 Some countries pulled from the

international climate change agreements

which weaken the effort by some

countries to combat climate.

 Wars in some countries prevent the fight

against climate change.

Benefits of the international climate

change agreements

 They have helped to reduce emission of

greenhouse gases.

 They have accelerated the development,

use and transfer of cheap and

environment-friendly technologies in the

world.

 They strengthen international

cooperation.

Ways of promoting climate change

mitigation and adaptation initiatives at

community level

 Growing drought tolerant crops

 Restricting irrigation farming

 Promoting afforestation and

reafforestation.

 Engaging in irrigation farming

 Use of alternative sources energy to

replace fuel energy.

 Practicing water harvesting and

conservation

 Ensuring enough food reserves in stores

 Conducting public awareness and civic

education campaigns

 Practice proper agricultural methods that

do not cause soil erosion and silting.

 Providing emergency shelters to

homeless victims

 Providing relief items and shelter to

affected people in the affected areas such

as food, clothing, utensils and beddings.

 Making settlement away from disaster –

prone areas (e.g. mountain slopes and

river banks).

Page 22 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 6 MINERALS

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the meaning of the term mineral

2. Explain types of minerals

3. Locate mineral deposits on a world map e.g. coal, copper, iron ore, gold, aluminium and

uranium

4. Describe uses of minerals e.g. coal, copper, iron ore, gold, aluminium and uranium

5. Explain mining methods

6. Explain the effects of mining

7. Locate places where uranium is found on a map of Malawi

8. Describe the occurrence of uranium

9. Explain how uranium is extracted and processed

10. Describe the importance of uranium mining in Malawi

11. Identify the countries where uranium from Malawi is exported

12. Explain the possible impact of uranium on the environment

13. Describe the cost-benefit analysis of uranium mining in Malawi

Mineral refers to a chemical compound in

the earth`s crust which makes the basis of

the rock. An Ore is a rock that contains

minerals worthy mining. Metal is chemical

element that can be processed by special

treatment in order to produce metals.

Characteristics of Minerals

1. Naturally occurring. They are not

manufactured in the industries.

2. They are inorganic in nature. Anything

from animal and plant matter does not

qualify to be a mineral. For example,

coal and petroleum are not minerals.

3. They are solids and occur as solids at

normal temperature and pressure on the

Earth’s surface.

4. They have regular chemical composition

in fixed proportion. Substances that

contain more elements are called

compounds. Most minerals are made by

the combination of only 8 elements such

as oxygen, silicon, aluminium, sodium,

potassium, chlorine, iron and

magnesium.

5. They have orderly internal structure.

Their atoms are arranged in a regular,

repeating and orderly pattern.

Types of Metallic Minerals

a. Metallic Minerals

They are processed into metals.

o Ferrous Minerals

They contain iron, e.g. Gold,

nickel, platinum, chromite, iron

and diamond

o Non-Ferrous Metals

Page 23 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

They do not contain iron, e.g.

copper, tin, manganese and

aluminium.

b. Non-Metallic Minerals

They do not produce metals when

processed, e.g. Halite, asbestos and

gypsum

c. Organic Minerals

They are formed from dead organisms,

such as plants and animals, e.g.

petroleum, natural gas and coal. They

meant to produce energy

Minerals and their Uses

Mineral

Property

Use

Aluminium

It has a high

melting and

boiling

point.

It is

malleable.

It is light.

Used for

making

aluminium

paint,

aluminium

foil, aircraft,

utensils,

electric cables,

refrigerators,

Gold

It has high

melting and

boiling

point.

It is used for

manufacturing

gold tooth

fillings,

jewelries,

ornaments and

coins

Coal

It is a fossil

fuel. It is

brownish or

dark in

colour.

It is source of

thermal

energy. It is

used to

manufacture

drugs,

fertilizer,

timber

preservatives

(creosols) and

coke which is

used to process

iron and steel.

Copper

It is reddish

in colour. It

is resistant

to corrosion.

It is for

manufacturing

electric cables,

coins, parts of

engines and

phosphor

bronze (an

alloy of

copper, tin and

phosphorous.

Uranium

It is silvery

white, shiny,

radioactive,

malleable,

ductile and

light in

weight.

Used to

produce

nuclear

energy, bombs

and missiles.

Other uses

To propel

space ships

To detect

leaks,

pollutants,

movement of

underground

water, x-ray

machines in

hospitals

Iron

It is hard,

brittle and

purely

lustrous.

It is used for

alloy

preparations,

magnetic

extractions,

metal

extraction,

reducing

agent. It is also

used for

making body

structure of a

vehicle,

surgical

instruments

and reducing

agents.

Page 24 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Gypsum

It is soft

soluble in

water, low

thermal

connectivity,

sound proof

and non-

combustible.

Building

plaster

Making

cement

Used as

fertilizer

Used as fire

and sound

barriers

Formation of Minerals

Minerals are formed through two main

processes that include

a. Magmatic process

 Here, minerals are formed by the

cooling and crystallisation of

magma. Heavier minerals sink and

accumulate at the bottom of the

liquid rock of the magma chamber to

form ores. E.g. magnetite, chromite

and ores of nickel.

 On the other hand, magma and the

chemical solutions which it contains

change the surrounding rocks in

which minerals are introduced into

the existing country rocks. E.g. iron

ores and ores of copper

(chalcopyrite, malachite, cuprite,

chalcocite, and bornite).

b. Solution process

 Through leaching, minerals are

washed down the layers of soil

profile where they accumulate in the

zone of oxidation or subsoil, e.g.

bauxite.

 Insoluble minerals and weathered

materials are carried by the running

water down the valley where they are

concentrated as ores on the flood

plain, e.g. gold, diamond, tin and

platinum

Mining

It is the process of extracting minerals from

the earth`s crust.

Factors to consider before mining

 Mineral content in relation to the cost of

mining operations.

 The difficulties of mining operations.

For example, deep mining is very

expensive and risky in case in collapse

of mines.

 Geological nature of the mining site.

Some mining operations may trigger the

earthquake.

 Accessibility of markets and favourable

costs.

 Levels of technologies and availability

of power supply.

 Demand for minerals should exceed the

environmental problems likely to come

Methods of Mining

a. Adit or Drift Mining

It is the extraction of minerals on the

side of the mountain or valley.

Page 25 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Horizontal tunnels called adits are dug

following the mineral seam. Mineral

seam is a band or layer of minerals.

Advantages

 It is cheap

 Simple tools are used

Disadvantages

 It destroys the environment on the

mountain side

 It creates deep pits on valleys and

mountain side

b. Opencast Mining

This is also known as surface or strip

mining. This involves the extraction of

minerals which are found near the

earth`s surface. Overlying soil is

removed to expose mineral seam. Then

mineral ore is dug out or blasted and

transported to factories for processing.

Advantages

o It is cheap and easy

o Simple tools are used

Disadvantages

 It creates deep pits that cover land

that would be used for farming,

settlement and other developments

 Mining dust causes air pollution and

poor visibility

 It leads to deforestation and

ecological imbalance

c. Shaft or Deep Mining

This is done when minerals are found

deep down the earth. A metal structure

called shaft is sunk into the ground.

Horizontal tunnels called galleries are

made following the mineral seams.

Water is removed. Fresh air and lighting

are provided to the miners. When a

mineral ore is reached, it is dug and

blasted.

Advantages

 More and valuable minerals are

recovered.

 It does not affect physical

environment on the land surface

 It does not cause noise pollution

since sounds are confined to the

underground.

Disadvantages

 It is very expensive

 High risk of deaths and injuries when

mines collapse.

 It pollutes the underground water.

d. Solution Mining

The method involves the drilling of

holes deep down into the ground to

reach the mineral deposits. The minerals

are then dissolved and pumped to the

surface. Finally, water is evaporated by

the process of recrystallisation. Copper,

salt and uranium are mined in this way.

This method is also called In-situ

leaching (ISL) or in-situ recovery (ISR).

Advantages of Solution Mining

 It is safer than shaft mining where

miners have to go underground.

 It helps to recover deep and rich

minerals

 It is quick way of extracting

minerals.

 It is cheaper than underground or

shaft mining.

Page 26 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 There is no disturbance of surface

natural resources. For example,

there is little or no deforestation.

Disadvantages of Solution Mining

 It leads to land subsidence in old and

abandoned mining sites.

 The mining liquids may contaminate

the ground water resources.

 It requires large volumes of water to

dissolve the minerals.

e. Alluvial Mining

It is used to extract heavier minerals of

gold, diamond and tin. It involves the

extraction of minerals that are mixed

with water and other solid inorganic

particles like sand, gravel, mud and

small stones in rivers and lakes. Such

materials are washed away leaving

behind the minerals. Alluvial mining is

done in the following ways:

i. Using forceful water from hose

pipes.

This is used to extract minerals

which are found in the dry lands.

Water from hose pipes is blown onto

the ground where light sediments are

removed and leave behind heavy

minerals.

ii. Panning

A simple pan is used to scoop out the

mineral bearing sediments. When the

mixture is stirred, the heavier

minerals settle to the bottom of a pan

and lighter residues are removed

from or are allowed to spill out of a

pan.

iii. Dredging or Sub-marine Mining

This is done when extracting

minerals from the sea. A special

equipment known as a dredger is

used.

Advantages of Alluvial Mining

 It is easy mining method.

 It is cheap way of mining

Disadvantages of Alluvial Mining

 It may cause siltation in the nearby

water bodies by a large amount of solid

sediments.

 Dredging makes land surface

unattractive due to large fragments

which pile up on the surface.

The effects of Mining

a. Positive Effects

 It provides employment to miners.

 Minerals are raw materials.

 It gives the country foreign earnings.

 It is source of government’s revenue

through taxes.

 It promotes infrastructural

development. Better roads and power

lines are constructed to rural areas

where mines are located.

 It encourages the development of

industries, e.g. car industry.

 It facilitates the growth of towns.

b. Negative Effects

 Death of miners due to collapse of

mines.

 Deep pits hold water that may be a

breeding ground for disease

causing organisms.

Page 27 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It causes deforestation on the

mining site.

 It creates deep pits that occupy

land that would be used for other

developments.

 It promotes unsustainable

development when mines are shut

down. Miners lose employment.

 It causes soil erosion as large

lumps of rocks are removed.

Uranium

It is one of the most abundant minerals on

the Earth’s surface. Uranium is found in

hard rocks or sandstone.

Types of Uranium Ore Deposits

a. Unconformity deposits

Mineral deposits lie between two rock

stratas of different ages.

b. Paleoplacer deposits

It was formed by deposited sediments

which were compacted and lithified like

solid sedimentary rocks. Deep or shaft

mining is used to extract the mineral.

c. Sandstone-type Deposit

It is formed when oxidized groundwater

that has leached uranium from surface

rocks flows down into aquifers where it

is reduced to precipitate the primary ore

mineral of uranium called uraninite. It

is abundantly found in the sedimentary

rocks. Mining is easier and cheaper

since it is found near the Earth’s

surface.

Characteristics of Uranium

 It is radioactive

 It is malleable

 It is silvery white

 It is found inside ores

 It is one of the heaviest minerals.

The Occurrence of Uranium

Uranium occurs in black uranium oxide

called pitchblende which is hydrothermal

vein of sedimentary rocks. Groundwater

easily transports highly soluble uranium

called oxidized uranium.

Uranium is reduced and made relatively

insoluble when it precipitates together with

organic matter

Mining of Uranium in Malawi

There are four Australian companies that

own Malawi’s uranium mines such as:

a. Paladin (Kayerekera, Chilumba and

Chilongo)

b. Red Rock (Livingstonia, Nyika and

Chintheche)

c. Globe Uranium (Simulemba)

d. Africa Energy Resources (Majete and

Lisungwe at Kirk Range)

Kayerekera is where abundant uranium is

extracted by Paladin.

Uranium Mining at Kayerekera

Kayerekera is located 52 kilometers west of

Karonga town in the northern region of

Malawi.

Page 28 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

The uranium mine was first opened and run

by Central Electricity Generating Board of

Great Britain (CEGD). Thereafter, Paladin

Africa Ltd took over the project after it was

abandoned by the CEGD. Paladin Africa

Ltd has 85% shares and Malawi

Government holds the remaining 15%.

Methods of Uranium Mining

The mining methods of uranium are

a. Open pit mining

It is cheap but it releases large amounts

of dust that cause breathing problem.

b. Underground mining

It is expensive and workers are exposed

to hazardous gases to their health.

c. In-situ leaching (ISL)

It is done when minerals are in chemical

solution which is pumped to the Earth’s

surface.

Importance of uranium mining in Malawi

 It provides employment

 It provides government revenue.

 It is source of foreign earnings

 It provides raw materials

 It promotes infrastructural development

Challenges faced in the uranium mining

in Malawi

 Industrial strikes by workers who

demand for salary increase

 Shortages of working materials such as

dust masks.

 Low price of uranium at the

international markets.

 Land slippage of uranium that

negatively affects plant growth.

Processing of Uranium

The following are the steps taken in the

processing of uranium:

a. Milling and refining

The uranium ore is crushed and then

treated with acid solution which

percolates through the ore. In in-situ

mining, uranium is already in solution

which drains from the rocks and

collected.

b. Precipitation and drying

A chemical solvent is added to uranium

solution to turn it into a solid material

which is dried as a yellowcake (uranium

oxide concentrate. A yellowcake is

packed in steel drums and transported to

enrichment facility for further

processing.

c. Conversion

The chemical process turns a yellowcake

into a hexafluoride which then heated to

become gas and loaded into cylinders.

d. Enrichment

Uranium is made usable as fuel when

lighter U-235 atoms are separated from

heavier U-238 atoms in order to

concentrate the U-235 atoms. Gas

condenses into slid when it is cooled.

e. Fabrication

A fuel fabricator converts uranium

dioxide powder and presses the powder

into fuel pellet. Pellets are packed into

tubes which are used to release heat in

nuclear reactor vessels.

Uses of Uranium

Page 29 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It is used to make x-ray machines and

other devices for scanning a detecting

diseases in hospitals

 It is used to generate nuclear energy.

 It is used as a colourant in pottery and

glass manufacturing industries.

 It is used to determine the age of rock,

the Earth and other historical events. In

other way, it is used for atomic dating.

 It is used for making phosphate

fertilizer.

Countries where uranium from Malawi is

exported

 Russia

 Japan

 Canada

 France

The possible impact of uranium on the

environment

 Serious health risks due to exposure to

radiation and inhalation of radon gas

which very lethal.

 Water depletion in the surrounding

environment since the processing

requires large volumes of water.

 Contamination of water and soil which

affects ecological balance.

The cost-benefit analysis of uranium

mining in Malawi

a. Benefits

 It provides employment to miners.

 Minerals are raw materials.

 It gives the country foreign earnings.

 It is source of government’s revenue

through taxes.

 It promotes infrastructural

development. Better roads and power

lines are constructed to rural areas

where mines are located.

 It encourages the development of

industries, e.g. nuclear energy

industry.

b. Costs

 Uranium wastes contaminate water

resources.

 Nuclear suspended elements and

toxic substances pollute air.

 Uranium wastes have negative

effects on human health.

Page 30 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 7 PETROLEUM IN THE WORLD

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the term petroleum

2. Locate places where petroleum is found in the world

3. Explain the formation of petroleum

4. Describe the occurrence of petroleum

5. Explain how petroleum is extracted

6. Explain how petroleum is transported

7. Describe how petroleum is refined

8. Identify petroleum products and their uses

9. Explain the roles of OPEC

10. Explain the environmental impact of oil drilling, refining and transportation

Petroleum is the mixture of hydrogen and

carbon or hydrocarbons.

Formation of Petroleum

t is formed as a result of the action of

bacteria on dead bodies of minute marine

creatures buried at the bottom of the seas,

swamps or lagoons.

Later, the earth`s movements squeezed the

oil and gas from the source rock called

shale into the reservoir rocks of sandstone

and limestone.

Necessary Conditions for Oil to Form

 Pressure

 Heat

 Passage of time

 Exclusion of air

Oil Drilling and Extraction

A metal structure called derrick is used for

drilling a hole into the ground. The end of a

derrick is fitted with a cutter or bit. When

drilling, but is forced down as a lubricant of

a cutter and pieces of rocks are flushed out.

Page 31 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

When oil is reached, it comes out in two

ways as follows:

 It gushes out if it is under natural

pressure

 It is pumped if it is not under natural

pressure

Oil Refining

Oil refining is the process of turning crude

oil into the usable form. Crude oil is oil in

its natural state or unrefined oil.

Stages in Oil Refining

 Distillation or Fractionating

 Cracking

 Purification

Primary Distillation

This is the process of breaking down of

crude oil into various hydrocarbons or

fractions. In this process, crude oil is

vaporized and vapour is allowed to condense

at various levels of a tall tower called a

fractionating column.

Vapour condenses into liquids or

hydrocarbons which are collected for use.

Properties of fractionating column at the

top

 Low boiling point

 Burn with clear flame

 Light coloured

 More runny

 Are smaller molecules

Properties of fractionating column at the

bottom

 Have high boiling point

 Have longer carbon chains

 Are thicker

 Less likely to burn

 Are larger molecules

Cracking

This is also known as secondary

distillation. This refers to the breakdown of

Page 32 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

heavier fractions into the lighter fractions

by reheating. In the process, a cat-cracker is

used. For instance, gasoline is reheated to

produce benzene. This is due to the

increased demand for lighter oils. Thermal,

catalytic and steam cracking involve

reheating of oil to come up with lighter oils.

On the other hand, hydrocracking involves

diluting heavy oils to produce lighter oil.

Purification

This is the process of removing impurities

from oil, such as sulphur compounds.

Location of Oil Refineries

 At the port near the oil producing

region, e.g. Abadan in the Middle East

 At the entry port of oil consuming

countries

Transportation of Oil

a. Pipelines: they are used to transport oil

from the producing region to consuming

region over long distances.

Advantages of pipelines

 It is cheapest way of transporting

liquid and gaseous commodities

 It is cheap to use

 It safe and environment friendly.

 It is cheap to use.

 It uses less energy

Disadvantages of pipelines

 They are expensive to construct,

maintain and patrol.

 Fire accidents may occur if pipes

leak.

 Pipelines are inflexible once they are

laid down

b. Oil tankers are used to transport crude

oil over the sea from oil producing

countries to refineries. The goodness is

that a tanker carries large quantities of

oil over long distances at once. The

disadvantages are that tankers are

expensive to build a ship and construct

ports, it is very slow, and it pollutes

water due to leaking tankers.

c. Rail tankers, road tankers are used to

distribute oil to consumers or filling

stations.

d. Aircrafts are used by the military bases.

Oil Products and their Uses

Natural gas (methane) is used for heating

and burning

 Making chemicals from butane, ethane

and propane

 Gasoline is used for driving land

transport

 Kerosene is used by jets

 Gas oil which is made into diesel is used

by lorries, buses and other locomotives

 Bitumen is used for making tarmac.

Bitumen is the end by-product of

primary distillation

 Other uses of oil products are for making

drugs, plastics, car antifreeze, adhesives

and chemicals.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC)

The following are the roles of OPEC:

 It is responsible for regulating supply of

petroleum to non-member states by

assigning quota to member countries.

 It regulates prices of oil products at the

world markets

 It coordinates and unify the petroleum

policies of the member states.

Page 33 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Member Countries of OPEC

They are Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon,

Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,

Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab

Emirates and Venezuela.

Reasons for Oil Nigeria’s Oil Crisis

 Low oil refinery capacities. Most of

crude oil is exported to other foreign

refineries.

 Low oil productivity in relation to

increased demand for refined oil.

 Conflicts and frequent attacks of oil

infrastructure.

 Theft and vandalism of oil pipes and

other infrastructures.

Possible environmental impact of oil

drilling, refinery and transportation

 Pollution

Oil drilling pollutes water.

Oil spills from leaking oil tankers pollute

water. It also caused by the leaking

pipelines. This causes death of marine

animals.

 Climate change is caused the burning of

oils that release carbon dioxide into the

air and cause global warming.

 Acid rain petroleum products release a

lot of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen

oxides that when they combine with

water vapour they forms acid rain.

 Fires and explosions as petroleum

products are highly flammable. This

destroys environment and causes huge

fires in cities.

 Chronic occupational hazards as

workers are exposed to heat, polluted air,

noise and other dangerous explosives

which may cause injuries and death.

 Land degradation by leaking pipelines

that release large oil spills on land.

Page 34 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 8 ENERGY

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the meaning of the term energy

2. Identify types of energy

3. Explain how energy is produced from the sun, wind and water

4. Describe advantages and disadvantages of different types of energy

5. Explain the importance of energy

6. Explain the environmental impact of various sources of energy

7. State the energy crisis in Malawi

Types of Natural Resources

Natural resources are things which were

provided by nature.

Renewable Resources

These are resources which can be replaced

or replenished. They can be recycled. They

include vegetation, animals, air and soil.

Non-renewable Resources

These are resources which cannot be

replaced or recycled. They are completely

used up. For example, there are minerals,

petroleum and natural gas.

Natural Resources which are Source of

Energy

Natural

Resource

Energy

Produced

Sun

Solar energy

Water and tidal

waves

Hydro-electricity

Fossil fuels

(petroleum, coal

& natural gas)

Thermal energy

Wind

Wind energy

Hot springs and

geysers

Geo-thermal

energy

Biomass

Biogas energy

Page 35 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Alternative Energy

This is energy that cannot be depleted when

used. It can be recycled. It is also called

renewable energy. Examples of alternative

energy are hydro-electricity, geo-thermal

energy. Wind energy, solar energy and

biogas. Thermal energy is not alternative

energy.

Types of Energy

Hydro – Electricity

It is produced when water from a good height moves with great force through the penstocks and

turns the turbine. The turbine in turn causes generator to produce electricity.

Factors Necessary for the Generation of

Hydro – electricity

c. Sufficient and constant water supply

from rainfall or melting ice on hill

slopes.

b. Availability of heavy capital outlay.

c. Availability of rapids or waterfalls.

d. Large domestic and industrial markets

where electricity is used such as,

industries.

Advantages of Hydro – electricity

 It is very efficient.

 It is renewable.

 It can be transmitted over long distances

without losing power.

 It is reliable since water is readily

available.

 It does not pollute air.

 Power dams serve many purposes such

as irrigation and fishing.

 It is relatively cheap to produce.

 There is unlimited degree of divisibility.

It can be used in small to large devices

or appliances.

Disadvantages of Hydro – electricity

 River damming deprives farmers of their

land for farming and settlement.

 Construction of dams destroys the

environment.

 Constructing and maintaining dams are

expensive.

 The dams become the breeding ground

for disease causing organisms.

 Building up of silt in the dam deprives

the flood plain downstream of soil

nutrients.

Page 36 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Rural inhabitants do not see any

importance of using electricity.

Solar Energy

Sun is the source of solar energy.

Solar panels capture the sun`s heat and

convert it into electricity direct to solar cells

or power banks where unused electricity is

stored and be used later. Inside solar panels,

there are photovoltaic cells that convert solar

energy into electricity.

Advantages of Solar energy

 It is renewable as sunshine is always

available.

 It is good for small-scale energy needs.

 There is unlimited supply of sun`s

energy.

 It is cheap to generate and use since

sun’s energy is free of charge.

 It does not cause pollution of any form.

Advantages of Solar Energy

 Less electricity is produced during dense

and extensive cloud cover

 Solar panels and solar cells are

expensive

 It is very inefficient since a smallest

percentage (only 30%) of sun`s heat is

turned into electricity

Wind Energy

Page 37 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

As wind is blowing, it turns the wind mills

that make the turbines rotate. Then turbines

cause generators to produce electricity. The

blades are connected to a long shaft that

turns a turbine. Several wind mills are

constructed in an identified piece of land

which is known as a wind farm.

Advantages of Wind Energy

 It is renewable as wind is always

available.

 There are low operation costs.

 It is cheap to generate and use.

 It can be used even in remote rural areas

 It does not cause water and air pollution.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy

 Wind mills cause visual and noise

pollution.

 Wind mills are expensive.

 Large number of wind mills and turbines

are required.

 There is erratic supply of electricity

when wind speed is not constant.

Nuclear Energy

Uranium is the main raw material for the

production of nuclear energy. Uranium rods

are put in the reactor vessel where

radioactive changes occur and release large

amount of heat. Heat energy heats and

vaporizes water in a steam generator.

Steam is directed to a turbine which is

connected to a generator. Steam turns a

turbine to make generator produce

electricity.

Advantage of Nuclear Energy

Generation requires limited raw materials.

 It is very efficient as it produces large

amounts of energy from small amounts

of fuel.

 It causes little air pollution.

 Risks of accidents are reduced due to

many safeguards.

 Electricity can be transmitted over long

distances.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

Page 38 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Nuclear wastes are very dangerous as

they are radioactive in nature.

 Nuclear accidents cause environmental

hazards. It requires large capital to

install power plants.

 Radioactive nuclear wastes are very

dangerous to people and the whole

environment.

 It is a source of fatal accidents.

 Many healthy problems to people who

live near the nuclear power stations

shutting down old power plants is very

costly

Geo – Thermal Energy

It is produced at the volcanic sites, more

especially at the hot springs, geysers and

fumaroles. Steam is harnessed and directed

to a turbine. Turbine turns and causes

generator to produce electricity.

Sometimes, wells are drilled in order to

reach hot rocks; any surface water is forced

back into the reservoir to be reheated and

produce steam.

Advantages of Geo-thermal Energy

 It is renewable.

 It does not cause air pollution.

 It is reliable.

Disadvantages of Geo - thermal Energy

 It is expensive to install.

 There are limited sites.

 It is expensive to construct and maintain

the power plants.

 It can bring toxic substances onto the

Earth’s surface that may destroy the

environment

Biogas Energy

Biogas is energy generated from dead and

decomposed plant and animal matter. Such

materials are called biomass which includes

animal dung, dead wood, saw-dust, dead

leaves, crop residues and garbage. Cattle

dung is the best biomass as it produces a lot

of methane.

Two ways of making biogas

a. Burning

b. Landfill

Burning Method

The biomass materials are placed in a

furnace where they are heated and vaporize

water in a boiler. Water produces vapor

which is directed to a turbine that turns and

cause generator to produce electricity.

Landfill Method

Dung is mixed with water and put in the

digester buried into the ground and is

properly secured.

Page 39 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Micro-organisms act on the dung and

produce biogas which is used for heating,

cooking and lighting.

Advantages of Biogas

 It is very cheap to buy the equipment.

 Raw materials are readily available in

the local environment.

Disadvantages of Biogas

 Farmers are deprived of cheap source of

fertilizer.

 It helps to reduce the amount of wastes

from the environment.

 It can be difficult to collect sufficient

quantities of wastes.

 If not handled properly, it can spread

disease

Importance of Energy in the Country

 It is used for driving vehicles and other

locomotives

 It helps for keeping houses warm

 It is used for processing and preserving

food

 It used for manufacturing goods in the

industries

Environmental impact of various sources

of energy

 Burning of fossil fuels produces

greenhouse gases that cause global

warming and depletion of ozone layer.

 Production of biogas releases methane

which pollutes air and cause global

warming.

 Construction hydroelectric plants and

generation of electricity destroy

environment.

 Oil drilling has adverse effects on

marine ecosystem.

Energy crisis in Malawi

This is the situation created by shortage or

scarcity of energy resources due to increased

demand. Fossil fuels are in insufficient

supplies to support the growing population

in the world. As a result, there are a lot of

problems caused by shortage of fossil fuels

such as:

 Rampant cutting down of trees for fuel

trees and charcoal burning

 Rising costs of fossil fuels

 Dwindling of oil reserves which are

never replaced

Causes of energy crisis in Malawi

 Wastage of energy resources

 Dependence on old and poor electric

power plants or poor infrastructural

development on hydroelectric

generation.

 Unexploited energy options. This means

that there are many energy resources

such as wind that are left unused to ease

the problem of electricity in Malawi.

Page 40 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Rapid population growth that puts

pressure on limited energy resources.

 Overconsumption of energy due to rapid

population growth and increase in

technologies that pose great demand on

energy resources.

TOPIC 9 WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1 Identify areas of low, medium and high population densities on a world map

2 Account for world population distribution

3 Explain world population distribution

4 Calculate population densities for selected countries

World Population Distribution and Density

Page 41 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Factors that affect world population

distribution

a. Soil

Areas with fertile soils are more densely

populated than those with poor soils.

b. Relief or topography

Flat and gently sloping areas are more

densely populated than mountainous

areas and valleys.

c. Climate

Very cold and dry lands (deserts) are

more sparsely populated than areas that

have good climate. Good areas receive

rainfall that promotes various industrial

activities.

d. Level of economic activities

Areas that have more economic

activities (such as trading centres,

mining towns, cities) have very high

population densities as compared to very

remote rural areas.

e. Natural resources

Areas with rich resources like minerals

and fertile soil are densely populated

rather than areas with poor resource

deposits.

f. Transport and communication

High population densities are

concentrated near or along the transport

links.

g. Water supply

Large populations are concentrated

around water point. Where water is a

problem you cannot find many people as

it is essential for human activities.

h. Political stability

Countries which are peaceful attract

many people to settle there. Wars make

people to abandon their homes.

i. Natural hazards

Disaster prone areas (like floods and

earthquakes) have little or no population.

j. Government policies

Government may evacuate people from

some areas due to a number of reasons,

such as folds. It can also resettle people

Page 42 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

in some areas in order to reduce pressure

on natural resources.

Factors for High Population

South East Asia

 China has largest population (750

million people) in the world. Other

countries in this region are India (540

million), Pakistan (112 million) and

Bangladesh (105 million)

 Fertile alluvial soils along the Ganges,

Indus and Yangtse Kiang Valleys.

 Peasant farming that depends on family

members for cheap source of labour.

This necessitates large families.

 Early trading activities

 Early settlement

Western Europe

There is very large concentration of

populations in the region due to the

following factors:

 Early trade

 Trade route and focus

 Industrial development

 Communication centre

North East America

The following are the factors that encourage

large populations:

 Industrial development

 It is worldwide centre of commerce

 Good agricultural land

 There is good future and development

Witwatersrand Region in South Africa

 Mining

 Industrial development

 Commerce

 Better living standards

Coastal Regions of West Africa

In this region Nigeria is largest populated

country in Africa with the population of 120

million people. Some of the reasons for

highest populations in the region are:

 Improved living conditions

 Fertile soil for farming

 Water and transport

 Contact with early traders

Factors for Low Populations Hot Deserts

 Harsh climate which is very hot and dry

 Poor soil

 Difficult transport due to sand dune

 No contacts with outside world

Equatorial Forests

 Poor soil drainage

 Difficult transport due to very thick

forest and slippery roads

 Dangerous animals and diseases that

attack people

Tundra Region

 Very short crop growing season

 Extremely cold climate where soil is

permanently frozen.

 Difficult transport because land and

water are permanently frozen

Population density

This is the total number of people living in a

square kilometer.

Factors for Low Population Density

 Extreme climate

 Rugged and hilly landscape

Page 43 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Extreme remoteness (areas are hardly

reachable)

 Infertile soil

Factors for High Population Density

 Moderate climate for settlement and

farming

 Fertile farm land

 Low land with gentle slopes and fertile

soil

 Good water supply for drinking and

irrigation

 Wealthier areas in terms of industries

that offer more jobs

 Poverty in developing nations tends to

encourage large family sizes.

Calculating population density

The following is the formula for calculating

population density

Population density =





Population density for country A











= 43 people per km

You can now use the formula to calculate

population density for remaining countries.

Advantages of high population densities

 It provides a ready market for various

goods

 There is abundant work force

 Ii promotes a great interaction of

people which helps in the sharing of

knowledge, skills and ideas vital to

develop the area

 There is greater competition amongst

people which aids development

Disadvantages of high population

densities

 Shortage of food

 Shortage of land for crop cultivation

 More social problems, e.g. fighting for

limited resources

 Poor living standards or poverty

 Difficult to provide basic necessities

 Pressure on forest resources which

leads to deforestation, e.g. charcoal

 Shortage of social services, such as

drugs and teaching/learning resources

(social environment)

 Land degradation due to continuous

cultivation of land.

 It leads to cultivation along the river

banks which results to siltation.

Advantages of low population densities

 The land produces enough food for the

inhabitants

 Land is readily available for maximum

use

 It is not easy for disease outbreak to

spread easily.

 It is quiet; there are low noise levels

 There is enough space for everyone

which creates enough room for one’s

privacy and freedom.

 There are no social problems such as

fighting, quarreling, prostitution and

theft.

Countr

Population

Area

(km

)

Ppl density

(ppl/km

)

26 738

629

7 452 234

17648

5 762 721

53424

6 534 217

12335

Page 44 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Disadvantages of low population

densities

 There is lack infrastructure and

services.

 People over long distances looking for

social services

 It leads to boredom due lack of

entertainment and social services.

 Shortage of labour supply

 There is no exchange of ideas due to

lack of social interaction.

 Retarded development due to slow

diffusion of innovations and ideas.

REVISION NOTES (Form 1)

Migration

 This refers to the movement of people

from one area to another. Migration is

categorized into immigration and

emigration.

 Immigration is the movement of people

into the country while emigration is the

movement of people out of the country.

The area where people are coming from

is called a donor area while the area

where they are migrating to is known as

destination or recipient areas.

Immigrants are people who enter the

country while emigrants are people who

leave the country.

Factors that Cause Migration

There are political, social and economic

factors that cause people to migrate. These

factors are put into two groups like push and

pull factors.

Push factors are those factors that drive

people away from the area. On the other

hand, pull factors attract people to settle in

the new areas.

Effects of Migration on

i. Donor Areas

 Neglected homes

 Empty schools

 Retarded development

 Poor road conditions

ii. Recipient Areas

 Rapid population growth

 Shortage of social services

 Overcrowding in schools, public

transport and hospitals

 More social problems like high

crime rate

 Shortage of land for farming

Factors

Pull Factors in Recipient

Areas

Social and

Political

Factors

 Entertainment

 City life

 Political stability

 Political freedom

Economic

Factors

 Job opportunities

 Improved social

services

Physical

Factors

 Favourable climate

 Good soil

Page 45 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Population change

This is the difference between the size of the

population at the end and beginning of a

period of any given society or country. This

can be in terms of increase or decrease in

population.

Factors that Influence Population Change

1. Birth rate

 Birth rate refers to average number

of babies born in every place for

every 1000 people during a

particular period of time.

Birth rate =





 High birth rate leads to rapid

population growth.

2. Death rate: it refers to number of deaths

per 1000 who die in a particular area

during a particular period of time.

Death rate =





3. Migration: it leads to population growth

in the recipient area whereas emigration

depopulates donor area.

Population growth rate

This is the rate at which population of a

country grows. There are different types of

population growth rate that include:

i. Rapid growth rate

This is a situation where rapid growth

of population is experienced due to

higher birth rate than death rate.

ii. Slow growth rate

This is a nearly stagnant population

growth experienced where both birth

and death rates are low. E.g. in

developed countries like Britain and

Germany.

iii. Zero growth rate

This is a stable population growth rate

where both birth and death rates are

almost equal. It is also known as

constant growth rate or stationary

growth rate. In this case, population

growth rate is therefore zero.

iv. Negative growth rate

This is a situation where death rate

surpasses birth rate. In other words,

death rate is lower than death rate. As a

result, there is e declining population.

Birth rate

 It is the number of live births per year,

taking 1000 persons. This is termed as

the crude birth rate because puts

Factors

Push factors in Donor

Areas

Social and

Political

Factors

 Conflicts

 Witchcraft

 Wars

 Insecurity

 Disputes

Economic

Factors

 Poverty

 Unemployment

Physical

Factors

 Natural disasters like

floods

 Poor soil and climate

 Epidemics

 Shortage of land for

farming and

settlement

Demographic

Factors

 High population

Page 46 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

together all people who are not capable

of giving birth (like men, women, young

girls and old women) with those who are

in a position of to give birth (such as

mature, married and unmarried women).

 In short, crude birth rate refers to the

total number of people who are not

capable to give birth and those in a

position to give birth.

CBR=





X 1000

Death rate or mortality rate

 This refers to the number of deaths per

1000 persons. This is known as a crude

death rate (CDR) because it does not

consider the age and sex composition of

the population of the population at risk.

CDR =





X 1000

Reasons for High Death rates in

Developing Countries

 Dirty and unreliable water supplies

 Poor housing conditions

 Poor access to medical services

 Epidemic diseases in some areas

 Diets that are short in calories and/or

protein

Reasons for Low Death Rates in

Developed Countries (USA, Germany and

UK)

 Good housing conditions

 Safe water supplies

 More than enough food to eat

 Advanced medical services.

Natural increase

 This is the difference between the

number of births and number of deaths.

This happens when birth rate exceeds

death rate. Malawi`s natural increase

is30% per year for every 1000 people.

Natural increase = birth rate – death rate

 Natural increase is caused by:

i. High birth rates

ii. Low death rates

iii. Influx of people into the country

Natural decrease

 This is a condition that occurs when

death rate exceeds birth rate. This leads

to low population. Natural decrease is

caused by:

Epidemics such as Ebola and HIV/AIDS

i. Natural hazards such as flooding

ii. Severe drought

iii. Pests and diseases that destroy

crops.

iv. Civil wars in a country.

Infant mortality rate (IMR)

 This is the number of children who day

per year at the age of below 1 year per

1000 persons in the population.

IMR =





X 1000

Factors for High Infant Mortality Rate

(IMR)

 Shortage of medical services

 Greater number of children born to

mothers

 Poor nutrition to mothers and babies

 Less knowledge of health matters

 Dirty water supply

 Gender inequalities and abuse of power

Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)

This is the number of mothers who die

during pregnancy or delivery.

MMR =





X 1000

Page 47 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Factors for Maternal Mortality Rate

 Early marriages and teenage

pregnancies

 Inadequate health facilities and services

 Gender inequalities

 Greater number of children born to

mothers

 Less knowledge of health matters

 Poor nutrition to mothers

Life expectancy

 This refers to the average number of

years that a person can expect to live.

Life expectancy is calculated at birth of

a child.

 Life expectancy is higher in women than

that of men.

 There is also higher life expectancy in

developed countries (like Japan and UK)

than in developing countries such as

Malawi. For example, in Malawi life

expectancy is at 34 years while in Japan

is at 85 years for women and 80 years

for men.

Reasons for Low Life Expectancy

 Poor nutrition

 Poor hygiene

 epidemics

 Poor sanitation

 Poor medical care

Reasons for Low Life Expectancy

 High living standards

 High medical care

 Increased use of vaccines

 High nutritional levels

 Improved hygiene and sanitation

Population explosion

Population explosion refers to the sudden

rapid population growth in an area which is

as a result of a marked decrease in death rate

and an increase in birth rate.

Causes of Population Explosion

 High fertility rate

 Reduced mortality rate

 Influx of refugees into the country

Ways of Avoiding Population Explosion

 Making laws that limit the number of

children per couple. E.g. in China the

state controls marriages and prevents

early marriages by imposing penalties on

the offenders

 Convincing the population to accept

family planning methods. E.g. men in

India are encouraged to undergo

vasectomy.

 Making laws that stop re – marriages

after divorce

 Government should control under age

marriages and single motherhood.

 Instituting laws that prohibit high

fertility rate

 Encouraging the use of contraceptives

among the population and increase their

accessibility

 Encouraging education of girls

Population density

This is the total number of people living in a

square kilometer.

Population density =





Overpopulation

It is the state of imbalance where there is an

excessively high population in relation to

potential resources in an area at a given

time.

Causes of Overpopulation

 Natural increase in population

 Decline in resources

 A decline in the demand for labour

Under population

Page 48 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

It is the condition where the country`s

population is too small to develop its

resources effectively enough in order to

improve the living standards. The

government is able to cut expenditures on

education, health and other services thereby

making savings for other development

projects

TOPIC 10 POPULATION DYNAMICS

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the structure of a given population

Page 49 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

2. Compare and contrast the population structures of developed and developing countries

3. Describe the implications of various population structures on development

4. Explain the meaning of the term dependency ratio

5. Describe the demographic transition model

6. Explain the causes of rapid population growth

7. Explain the effects of rapid population growth on development

8. Suggest strategies for controlling population growth

9. Explain the benefit of controlling population growth

Population Structure

Population structure is the composition of

the population based on age and sex.

Population structure is represented by the

population pyramid.

Youthful Population Structure

It shows the population that mostly

composed of children. It has the following

characteristics:

 There are more children than adults

 It has wide base and narrow top

 It represents the developing countries

like Malawi, Ethiopia, Kenya, DRC and

Zambia.

 There is rapid population growth

Reasons for Youthful Population

Structure

 Low levels of education of women

 Low levels of employment of women

 Lack of family planning services

 Peasant farming that encourages having

many children as cheap source of

labour

 Lack of social security system that

force families to have many children to

support them at their old age.

 High mortality rate that encourages

bearing more children hoping that some

may survive.

Implications of Youthful Population

Structure

 Increased demand on natural resources

leading to environmental degradation.

 Shortage of social services

 Shortage of housing

 Lack of job opportunities

 Shortage of food that causes

malnutrition and ill-health

 Low levels of living and absolute

poverty

Ageing Population Structure

This is the one that mostly composed of

adults. Below are the characteristics:

Page 50 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 More adults than youths

 More women than men

 It describes population of developed

countries such UK, Sweden, USA and

Canada.

Causes of Ageing Population Structure

 High levels of education and

employment for women

 High life expectancy or low mortality

rates

 Availability and use of family planning

services

 Presence of old age social security

systems

 Prohibition of child labour by law

Implications of ageing population

 More money is needed to support the

ageing population in terms of pension

scheme and health care services

 There are fewer workers left to fill the

gaps left by adults

 Rising taxes for the fewer workers in

order to support the elderly people.

 Improved education and health care

services to children in the population

that can easily attain higher education

and later enter into the work force.

Dependency ratio

Dependency ratio is the percentage of

people in the non – economically active age

group to that economically active age group.

Or it refers to the percentage of children

under the age of 16 years and elders who are

above the age of 65 who depend on the

economically active people. More adults of

up to the age of above 65 and children up to

the age of 14 years create this dependency

ratio.

Dependency ratio =



󰇛



󰇜

󰇛

󰇛

X 100

Example

Calculate dependency ration if in a country

there are 13 435 221 under-16 children, 34

729 121 economically active people and 964

182 elders.

Dependency ratio =





X 100

= 41.46

Therefore, dependency ratio is 41%

Demographic transition model

It is a figure that describes the world’s

population trends in terms of birth and death

rates. It shows how the world’s population

grows. It is divided into stages A to D. Each

stage describes how population grows

corresponding to birth and death rates.

Page 51 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Stage I or High Stationary Stage

 In this stage both birth rate and death

rate are high due to the following

factors:

 Lack of family planning

 Dependence on child labour

 Better living standards with poor

education and medical services.

 Primitive thinking on uncontrolled

number of children per couple.

 Population growth is slow

Stage II or Early Expansion Stage

 Death rate falls and birth rate remains

high due to improvements in medicine,

sanitation and hygiene because of the

following reasons:

 Improved hygiene

 Improvement in medical care

 Better sanitation services

 Population grows rapidly. Countries

depend on agriculture or depend on

agrarian economy such as Malawi,

Stage III or Late Expansion Stage

 Death rate continues to fall and birth

rate falls due to:

 Access to health care

 Improved diet

 Industrial development has also

accelerated high populations in cities

and towns.

 Population growth has started to

decline. Countries in this stage are

Egypt, Tunisia, Zimbabwe, South

Africa, Costa Rica, Mexico and Turkey.

Stage IV or Low Stationary Stage

 Both death rate and birth rate are almost

the same.

 Population growth levels off. All this is

due to high living standards. A decline

in both death and death rate is called a

complete demographic transition. In

this Sweden.

Causes of rapid population growth

Effects of rapid population growth on

development

 Increased demand on natural resources

leading to environmental degradation.

 Shortage of social services

 Shortage of housing

 Lack of job opportunities

 Shortage of food that causes

malnutrition and ill-health

 Low levels of living and absolute

poverty

Strategies for controlling population

growth some countries in the world

 Introduction and use of family planning

programmes.

 Establishment of economic incentives

and disincentives on a number of

children per couple.

 Use of civic education programmes

through mass media, curriculum and

public rallies.

Page 52 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Formulating, implementing and

enforcing population policies.

 Improving women’s involvement in

some development programmes.

 Legislating and enforcing child labour

laws

World’s population policies

a. India

 Family planning services

 Use of contraceptives and

sterilization when contraceptives

fail

 Financial incentives are given to for

voluntary sterilization

 Use of force to those who do not

voluntarily sterilize

b. Taiwan

 Family planning campaigns

 Subsidizing smaller families

c. Great Britain

 Family planning campaigns

 Setting marriageable for girls by law

 Provision of old age social security

system

d. Israel

 Family planning campaign

e. Egypt

 Government backed family planning

schemes. However, some religions

discourage people from following

family planning methods.

f. China

a. Family planning campaigns

b. Encouraging late marriage

c. Legally 2-3 children are allowed per

couple

d. Contraceptives, sterilization and abortion

g. Nigeria

 Family planning campaigns

 Use of contraceptives

 Government encourages smaller

families

 4-children per couple policy

h. Malawi

 Discouraging child labour by law

 Encouraging education for a girl-child

 Family planning campaigns

Institutions that help to control

population growth in Malawi

 Banja La Mtsogolo

 Non-governmental organization

(NGOs) such as Population Services

International (PSI) and Print and

Electronic Media (e.g. newspaper and

TVs spread family planning messages).

Benefit of controlling population growth

 It reduces pressure on social services

 It reduces pressure on natural resources

 It reduces unemployment and its related

problems

 It ensures adequate resources in the

family, community and nation.

 It ensures quality services

 It helps to improve living standards of

people in the country.

 It reduces the rate of crime cases in the

country.

TOPIC 11 SETTLEMENTS

Page 53 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the meaning of the term settlement

2. Identify types of settlement

3. Discussing different types of settlement pattern

4. Examining different settlement patterns

5. Explain factors that influence settlement patterns

Settlement refers to a place where people

live and have built homes

Elements of Settlement

The following are the factors that encourage

the location of industries.

 People

 What the people do (occupation)

 Buildings and their functions

 Transport links

Important Terms in Settlement

Site: it is the actual piece of land on which

settlement is situated e. g. relief features.

Situation: It is relationship of settlement

with the immediate surroundings. It is also

called location.

Pattern: this refers to the situation of

buildings in relation to each other

Shape or internal structure of settlement:

this is the appearance of individual

settlement.

Factors that Influence Settlement Site

 Availability of arable land, fuel, drinking

water and building materials.

 Wet point is the type of settlement

which is attracted by the presence of

water. On the other hand, dry point is

the settlement built in upland away from

flood- prone areas.

 Flat land

 Climatic conditions

 Availability of resources

 Transport links

 Defensive reasons

Types of Settlement

There are two main types of settlement

namely:

a. Rural Settlement

b. Urban Settlement

Rural Settlement

Rural settlement has the following

characteristics:

 It is unifunctional (one main function

such as farming).

 It is made up of homogeneous

population (one ethnic group).

 There are permanent settlements with

strong social relations.

 They are dominated by illiterate

inhabitants.

 Population is smaller than in urban

settlement

 It is concerned with primary activities,

such as farming, fishing, and mining.

Page 54 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 The population is traditional since there

is homogeneous population.

 Very low land values

 Dependence on communal land

 Rural settlement is classified into groups

as illustrated in the following table.

 Abundance of semi-permanent buildings

Type of rural

settlement

Description

Farmstead

Few main buildings

and the surrounding

piece of land without

shops and other

social services

Hamlet

A grouping of

farmsteads

Village

Denser grouping of

farmsteads with

small shops, school,

post office and other

minor social services

Urban Settlement

Urban settlement is classified into a town,

city, metropolis, conurbation and

megalopolis.

Types of

urban

settlement

Description

Town

It is a densely populated

urban settlement

City

It is a large town where

people work and live.

Capital City

It is administrative centre

and houses national

government.

(Primate City)

Metropolis

It is a main city of a region

together with satellite towns

which form metropolitan

system. The satellite towns

depend on the metropolis for

some specialized services.

Conurbation

It is a large urban settlement

formed by the merging or

joining of individual towns

and cities. E.g.

Witwatersrand

Megalopolis

It is a very gigantic urban

settlement formed by the

merging of several

conurbations and super-

cities.

Characteristics of urban settlement

 There is high population density.

 It is multifunctional, meaning that there

are diversified economic activities.

 It is dominated by literate people.

 It is composed by heterogeneous

populations. There are varied of different

cultural background.

 There is high mobility

 Land values are very high

 There are permanent buildings

 Population is heterogeneous (existence

with multiculturalism).

Functions of settlements

 Residential

 Administrative

 Service delivery

 Industrial functions

 Commercial or trading functions

 Recreational functions

Difference between rural and urban

settlements

Rural settlement

Urban settlement

Dominated by poor

Dominated by rich

Page 55 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

and illiterate people.

and literate people

It is unifunctional, e.g.

agriculture only

It is multifunctional,

serves many

functions.

Poor transport and

communication

Good transport and

communication

services

Low levels of

technology

High levels of

technology

Low population

density

High population

density

Functional relationship between rural

and urban settlements

Rural areas are source of food and raw

materials for urban dwellers. On the other

hand, towns provide rural areas with

processed food and important social

services.

Types of Settlement Patterns

a. Nucleated Settlement Pattern

The buildings are constructed in clusters

or groups.

Factors that Influence Nuclear Pattern

- Where water is a problem and houses are

clustered around a water point.

- Estate farming that leaves more land for

crop cultivation.

- Need for defence or security

- Presence of large flat land and fertile soil

- Presence of business activities

Advantages of Nuclear Settlement Pattern

- There is more social interaction between

the households.

- There is more competition that

accelerates development.

- It Is easy to provide social services

- Communication is not a problem

- There is more security.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Settlement

Pattern

- Disease outbreak spread very easily

from household to another household

- Overcrowding of houses leads to poor

sanitation.

- There is lack of privacy.

- There are more social and sanitation

problems due to high population density

and competition for resources.

b. Dispersed Settlement Pattern

The settlements are made in isolated

lands away from each other. They are

linked by paths.

It is influenced by a number of factors

that include:

- Physical barriers such as mountains

and water.

- Presence of water almost

everywhere

- The presence of hills or mountains

- Unproductive soil

- Private or communal land

ownership where each households

occupy large landholdings in

isolation.

Page 56 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Advantages of Dispersed Settlement

Pattern

- Land is available and put to maximum

use

- Low noise levels

- Clean and quite environment

- There is privacy

- Difficult for diseases to spread between

households

Disadvantages of Dispersed Settlement

Pattern

- Loss of social interaction between the

households

- Communication is a problem

- Lack of security

- People travel long distances to get the

much needed services

- Sharing of innovative ideas is a

challenge that slows development.

c. Linear and Cross Settlement Pattern

Linear settlement is made following the

road or a stream except a railway line.

While cross settlement develops at the

road junction or river confluence.

Factors that promote these settlement

patterns are:

- Need to access social services by the

travelers

- Need for transport and

communication services

Advantages of Linear and Cross

Settlement Patterns

 Transport and communication are not a

problem

 There is presence of social services.

 It promotes trading activities and good

trade links between communities.

Disadvantages of Linear and Star

Settlement Patterns

 Car accidents affect many people along

the road.

 High noise levels by the moving

vehicles.

Hierarchy of Settlements

This refers to the grouping of settlements

which are ranked based on size, shape and

services provided in each settlement.

Variables that influence the hierarchy of

settlements

- Population size

- Range and level of services

- Sphere of influence (distance that people

cover to access the services

Urban Zoning

This is also known as functional or land-

use structure. This is also known as

functional or land-use structure. It refers

to the arrangement of various urban

functions in relation to each other

Page 57 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

The Functional Structure of a City

The diagram below shows the urban land-

structure.

Characteristics of Central Business

District (CBD)

This is the heart of the city. CBD has the

following characteristics:

 There are high-order land values like

administration, retail shops,

entertainment, hotels, financial

institutions, travel agents, cafes and

good restaurants.

 Tall buildings

 High land values

 Highly accessible

 Absence of residence and industries

 High population during the day and

depopulated at night

Characteristics of Transitional Zone

 There are commercial establishments

that require large floor space.

 There are little residences

 There are warehouses

 There are poor types of shops and light

industries

 There are more social problems

 Low grade housing: squatters and

ghettoes are located there.

Problems of Transitional Zone

 High rates of unemployment

 High crime rates

 Poor quality housing

 Overcrowding

Squatter settlement is the one occupied by

poverty-stricken rural inhabitants, on the

outskirts who migrate to cities in search of

jobs and then settle in hastily built shanty

houses.

Ghetto is settlement occupied by minority

groups who are forced by economic

conditions to live segregated from the rest of

the population, under terrible slum

conditions. Both squatters and ghettoes are

built with temporary materials like plastics,

cartons, grasses and wood,

Industrial and Lower Class Housing

 There are heavy industrial

establishments

 There are narrow streets

 There are generally high population

densities

 There are relatively low land values

Problems of Industrial and Lower Class

Housing

 Heavily polluted by noise from working

machines and cars, effluents and smoke

from industries

 There is a lot of heavy traffic

Suburbs or commuter zone

 This is the outskirt of the city

 These are new residential areas

 There are low noise levels and less

pollution

 There are better houses and wider streets

 Land value is low with expensive

housing

Page 58 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Farms, airports, new residents, power

stations and golf courses are located

there

Problems of Suburb Zone

 Long distance to reach the CBD

 Expensive housing enclosed in tall

fences and hedges.

 High costs of housing

 Poor public transport

Page 59 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 12 URBANIZATION

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the meaning of the term urbanization

2. Describe the concentric zonal model

3. Explain factors that influence urbanization

4. Explain the effects of urbanization

5. Suggest solutions to challenges associated with urbanisation

6. Identify environmental risks associated with settlements

7. Explain ways of dealing with environmental risks associated with settlements

8. Describe factors for the growth of Lilongwe city

9. Explain the challenges of rapid urbanisation of Lilongwe city

10. Explain solutions to the challenges of rapid urbanisation of Lilongwe city

Urbanization is the process by which an

ever-increasing percentage of the total

population of a country is accommodated in

urban rather than rural area.

Urban growth refers to increase in the

number of people who live in urban areas.

Factors for Urbanization

a. Rural-urban migration

b. Natural growth or higher birth rate

Rural-urban Migration

It refers to the movement of people from

rural to urban areas for settlement.

Reasons for Rural-urban Migration

Factors that influence urbanization are

classified into push and pull factors. Push

factors are those that force to leave rural

areas for urban areas. On the other hand,

pull factors are those that attract people to

go to urban centres.

Factors

Rural

(push

factors)

Urban (pull

factors)

Social

cultural

factors

- Conflicts

- Witchcraft

- Insecurity

- Disputes

- Entertainment

- City life

- Right lights

- Education

- More financial

services

- Better health

care services

Econo

mic

factors

- Poverty

- Lack of

jobs

- Job

opportunities

- Improved

social

services

Physica

factors

- Floods

- Drought

- High

population

density

Demog

raphic

factors

Page 60 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Problems Associated with Rural – Urban

Migration

Rural

Urban

- Low economic

development

- Low food

production

- Insecurity

- More abandoned

and neglected

houses

- More elderly

people than youths

- Poor services

- Half empty

schools

- Unmaintained

roads

- Shortage of

housing

- Deforestation

caused by physical

urbanization

- Congestion

- Pollution

- Squatting

- More social

problems

(prostitution, drug

and substance

abuse and crime)

- Environmental

despoliation

Importance of Towns

- They are centres of consumptions

- They are administrative centres

- They are centres of commerce

- They control imports and exports

Disadvantages of Towns

- They grow at the expense of rural areas

- They encourage the system that favours

small but wealthy minority

Effects of urbanization

i. Positive effects

 Coming in of new ideas due to

interaction of different groups of

people.

 Availability of social services

 Better living standards

 Infrastructural development such as

modern roads and office buildings.

j. Negative effects

 High unemployment levels

 Shortage of housing

 Increase in social problems, such as

crime, prostitution and aggressive

behaviours.

 Development of squatter settlement

 Lack of property rights due to

illegal or unregistered settlements or

slums.

 Breakdown of traditional family

link. More town dwellers tend to be

selfish by adopting foreign life

style.

 Low food production as many

youths migrate to towns leaving

elders in rural areas managing

farms.

 Traffic jam which may cause

accidents

Solutions to challenges associated with

urbanisation

 Providing parking areas in cities

 Providing free ways, one – way streets

and traffic lights to accelerate traffic

flow

 Discouraging cars from coming to CBD

by introducing parking meters and

parking fees for entry to CBD

 Demolition and redevelopment of

outdated buildings and slums

 Restoration and conservation of

buildings which have historical

importance

 Building of new towns to reduce

overcrowding in cities

Page 61 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Establishment of rural growth centres

 Introducing small scale industries in

rural areas that employ many people

Environmental risks associated with

settlements

 Deforestation

 Water and air pollution due to various

industrial activities and increased use of

motor cars which release harmful gases.

 Substandard housing may be a breeding

ground for disease causing organisms.

 Spreading disease outbreak due to

overcrowding

 Poor sanitation which spreads diseases

Ways of dealing with environmental risks

associated with settlements

 By proper waste management, e.g. by

burying wastes to avoid bad smell.

 Location of industries should be

properly planned.

 Practising afforestation and

reafforestation

 Adopting proper mechanisms to reduce

the emissions of harmful gases from

industries.

 Promoting the use of renewable energy

resources.

 Establishment of satellite towns and

rural growth centres in order to reduce

pressure on resources in cities.

 Conducting awareness campaign on the

proper conservation measures of natural

resources in towns.

The functional zones of Lilongwe city

Lilongwe City is rapidly expanding into

different directions although the growth in

some areas is far much faster than the other.

The City is divided into four main functional

sectors that include:

1 Capital Hill Sector

It is a CBD of Lilongwe City. It also

called a city centre. It is where the

capital city buildings are located. It is the

administrative centre. There also

important high value businesses areas

and banks.

2 Kanengo Sector

It is the major industrial site of

Lilongwe. There is vast land to

accommodate new industries.

3 Old Town Sector

It accommodates a variety of urban

functions such as residential areas,

commercial activities, administrative

functions and recreation centres (golf

club. There are light industries such as

food processing and carpentry and

joinery.

4 Lumbadzi Sector

Kamuzu International Airport (KIA) is

located there. There are also residences,

light industries, agriculture land and

commercial activities.

Factors for the growth of Lilongwe city

 Relocation of capital city from Zomba to

Lilongwe.

 Relocation of some leading

administrative offices from Blantyre to

Lilongwe.

 The transferring of parliament from

Zomba to Lilongwe.

 It is a rich agricultural land that attracts

many people to settle there.

Page 62 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Accessibility by land and air. It has a

good road network.

 Availability of social amenities like

Kamuzu Central Hospital and high

standard shopping centres.

Challenges of rapid urbanisation of

Lilongwe city

 Water shortage

 High crime rate

 Unemployment

 Sanitation problems due to blockage of

sewage pipes and drains.

 Traffic jam during rush hours.

 Air pollution

 Housing problems that influence the

development of squatter settlement.

Solutions to the challenges of rapid

urbanisation of Lilongwe city

 Providing parking areas in cities

 Providing free ways, one – way streets

and traffic lights to accelerate traffic

flow

 Discouraging cars from coming to CBD

by introducing parking meters and

parking fees for entry to CBD

 Demolition and redevelopment of

outdated buildings and slums

 Ensuring proper waste disposal

 Building of new towns to reduce

overcrowding in cities

 Protecting water catchment areas

 Establishment of rural growth centres

 Introducing small scale industries in

rural areas that employ many people

Other terminologies in urban settlement

 Compatibility of urban functions: it

means urban functions that attract each

other. E.g. Banks and high value shops

are compatible, but bars are not

compatible to schools.

 Urban decay: this is the development of

slum conditions.

 Centrifugal forces: these are factors

that encourage movement from the CBD

to suburbs. They are either push are pull

factors.

 Functional magnetism: attraction of

functions by others.

 Functional prestige: attraction of

activities to the area which are of the

same type.

 Functional convenience: this is place

where people stay near their working

place.

 Rural – urban fringe: it is a zone where

rural and urban settlements merge into

each other.

 Greenbelt: a band of land around the

city on which development of new

buildings is banned. It protects the

countryside, prevent towns from

merging and restrict urban sprawl.

Page 63 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 13 WORLD AGRICULTURE

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain agriculture as a system

2. Explain factors that influence agriculture

3. Identify factors influencing agriculture (physical, economic, human and technological)

4. Identify types of agriculture

5. Explain the difference between subsistence agriculture and commercial agriculture

6. Locate on the world maps areas where different types of agriculture are practised

7. Differentiate between intensive and extensive farming

World Agriculture as a System

World agriculture is described as a system

because it involves the extraction of

resources from the environment and

processes them to produce the new products.

In general, agriculture is described as a

system because it contains three components

which are interrelated such as input,

processes and output. The diagram below

describes world agriculture as a system. The

outputs are returned back into environment

for further production which serve as inputs

again after selling or as manure and feed for

animals.

Farming satisfies to be a system because:

 It is made up of interrelated components.

 It has a purpose to do.

 It needs supplies of energy to keep it

going

 Farmers need to adjust the way they run

and manage their work.

Factors that Influence World Agriculture

Factors that affect the world agriculture are

classified into the following categories:

a. Physical factors

b. Biotic factors

c. Social or cultural factors

d. Economic factors

e. Technological factors

Physical Factors:

 Warmth, intensity and duration of

sunshine influence crop maturity and

ripening.

 Rainfall provides soil moisture for crop

growth.

 Harsh climate (aridity) hinders

agricultural development.

 Flat topography enables mechanisation.

 It also determines the choice of irrigation

method.

 Sloping land which is well-drained is

good for the growing of coffee and tea.

Page 64 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Well-drained, fertile soil encourages

crop cultivation. Infertile soils hinder

agricultural development.

 Different types of soil are suited to

different types of soil.

Biotic Factors

 Pets, diseases and animal parasites

reduce agricultural production.

Social or Cultural Factors:

 Some religions prevent particular

agricultural practices.

 Culture has influence on the choice of

agricultural practices.

 Government policies have a great

influence on agricultural practices, E.g.

quota system. Quota is the maximum

amount of goods to be offered for sale.

Quota helps to control the production

and supply of agricultural products.

 The government also prohibits the

importation of animals and crop

products during the period of animal and

crop disease outbreak.

Economic Factors

 Capital helps to purchase inputs and

paying for other services.

 Financial institutions which provide

funding for agricultural operations.

 Availability of markets helps farmers to

produce more goods for sale.

Technological Factors

 Use of machinery

 Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and

drugs

 Improved crop varieties and animals

breeds

 Soil conservation measures

 Irrigation

 Transportation technology

 Ploughing

 Crop processing and preservation

Types of Agricultural Systems Based on

Purpose of Production

a. Subsistence Farming

b. Commercial Farming

Subsistence Farming

This is where the agricultural products are

used for food or prestige and only the

surplus is sold.

Characteristics of subsistence farming

 It uses family members as source of

labour

 Crops and animals are meant for

domestic consumption

 Variety of crops and animals are raised.

 Simple tools are used

Examples of Subsistence Farming

a. Pastoralism or Pastoral Nomadism

b. Sifting Cultivation

Characteristics of Subsistence Farming

 It uses family members as source of

labour

 Crops and animals are meant for

domestic consumption

 Variety of crops and animals are raised.

 Simple tools are sued

Advantages of Subsistence Farming

 It is cheap as it uses simple tools and

family members for labour.

 Farmers do not pay tax to government

Page 65 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Farmers become food self – sufficient

Disadvantages of Subsistence Farming

 Small and fragmented landholdings do

not allow mechanization

 Farmers do not pay government’s

revenue

 Traditional farming methods of farming

are practised, e.g. use of simple tools

 It leads to soil degradation as farmers

use simple tools.

Shifting Cultivation

It involves clearing a forest land and burn

vegetation to grow crops for few years. It is

also called slash-and-burn as the bushes are

cleared and burnt. It uses simple tools such

as hoes, axes and panga knives.

Crops are grown for few years where ash is

used as fertilizer. After land is degraded, it is

abandoned for another virgin land. This is a

very primitive form of farming which causes

deforestation.

Other names for shifting cultivation in

other countries

Name of

shifting

cultivation

Country

Milpa

Zimbabwe and

Mexico

Lading

Malaysia and

Indonesia

Tamarai

Thailand

Taungya

Burma

Roca

Brazil

Caingin

Philippines

Poda or Bewar

India

Chitemene

Zambia

Visoso

Malawi

Masole

DRC

Chena

Sri Lanka

Advantages of Shifting Cultivation

 Fire kills weeds

 Ash is a cheap source of fertilizer

 Burning of bush save labour costs

Disadvantages of Shifting Cultivation

 It leads to deforestation

 Burning of bushes destroys habitat for

wildlife.

 There are no permanent settlements and

structures.

 Burning of bushes destroys humus

which impoverishes the soil

Nomadic Pastoralism

This is the practice of rearing animals by

moving them to different areas looking for

food and water for animals. It is also known

as transhumance (means seasonal

movement of people with animals to

different places where they can find food

and water for animals).

The nomads keep animals just for food,

transport and prestige. They are not meant

for sale.

Pastoralism is practised in sparsely

populated areas.

The groups of nomads

Region

Nomads

Animals

East Africa

Masai

Cattle

West Africa

Fulani

Cattle

North Africa

(Sahel

Region

Tuaregs

Camel

Saud Arabia

Bedouins

Sheep

Scandinavia

Lapps

Reindeers

Central Asia

Kirghiz,

Kalmuoks

and Kazaks

Sheep

Page 66 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Problems of Pastoralism

 There is no settlement and development

as herders keep on moving to different

areas with their herds.

 Poor quality animals due to insufficient

pasture and water.

 Herders keep large herds of animals

which cause to overgrazing.

Commercial Farming

Crops and animals are raised for sale.

Characteristics of Commercial Farming

 Farmers specialize in one crop or

animal

 There are generally high yields

 High levels of technology

 There is hired labour

 There is large capital input

 Estate farming is practised

Advantages of Commercial Farming

 Framers pay tax which is source of

government’s revenue

 It employs many people

 It helps to improve food production

Disadvantages of Commercial Farming

 Being monocultural, diseases spread

easily.

 It limits the growing of food crops.

 It requires heavy capital inputs.

 It degrades environment due to high

chemical use.

 It is affected by drought, pests and

diseases.

The difference between subsistence

agriculture and commercial agriculture

Subsistence

farming

Commercial

farming

Variety of crops and

animals are raised.

Farmers specialize in

one crop or animal

Low yields

There are generally

high yields

Low levels of

technology

High levels of

technology

It uses family

members as source

of labour

There is hired labour

Low levels of capital

input

There is large capital

input

Dependence on

labour input with

simple farm tools

Farms are

mechanized

It is practised in

small piece of land

It is practised in

large piece of land

It is done in densely

populated areas

It is done in sparsely

populated areas

Crops and animals

are meant for

domestic

consumption

Animals and crops

are raised for sale

Types of agriculture based on the

intensity of land use

a. Intensive Farming

b. Extensive Farming

Intensive Farming

It is the system of farming that uses high

levels of capital, inputs, fertilizer,

technology and labour on a small piece of

land. It is done in areas where land is scarce

with relatively high population density.

Examples of intensive

a. Dairy farming in Denmark

b. Polder farming in Netherlands

Characteristics of Intensive Farming

 Small land holdings

 Much land labour is used

Page 67 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 High application of input and labour

 Continuous land use or cultivation is

done

 High yields per unit land

 Double or treble cropping per year

 Under-utilization of animals

 Irrigation is used in times of drought

Advantages of Intensive Farming

 It ensures high yields per hectare

 There are double or more yields per

annum

 There is continuous use of land without

losing soil fertility

 Soil acidity is avoided by means of

irrigation

 Use of small piece of land helps to

control damage of ecosystem, e.g.

intensive animal system helps to control

overgrazing

Problems Associated with Intensive

Farming

 Very high labour input leads to

rheumatism of wrists and ankles

 Under-utilization of animals

 Fragmented and scattered land holdings

make it difficult to manage them

effectively.

 Land is degraded due to continuous

cultivation

 There is high demand for labour that

may replace machinery

c. Extensive Farming

It is the system of farming that uses low

levels of capital, inputs, fertilizer,

pesticides and labour on a large area

piece of land. It is practised in sparsely

populated area.

Examples of extensive

a. Cattle ranching

b. Pastral nomadism

c. Extensive wheat farming in Canada

d. Extensive rice farming in South East

Asia

Characteristics of Extensive Farming

 Large landholdings

 It is monocultural

 Mechanization is practiced

 Yields are low per unit land but low per

individual

Characteristics of extensive farming

 Use of machinery speeds up work

 There is improved animal welfare as

they are allowed to move freely

 Less labour is required per unit land

due to mechanization

Disadvantages of extensive farming

 It is negatively affected by price

fluctuations at the international market

 It requires sparsely populated areas

 Irrigation is not possible due to size of

land

 Use of machinery is expensive

 Large land limit the habitat for wildlife

 It requires flat land for easy

mechanization.

 In case of extensive animal farming, it

leads to overgrazing.

 It also leads to disease outbreak and

multiplication of parasites in animals

 Animals lose energy as they travel long

distances looking for pasture and water

Page 68 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Differences between intensive and

extensive agriculture

Intensive farming

Extensive farming

Small land holdings

Large landholdings

Much land labour is

used

Farms are

mechanized

High application of

input and labour

Low levels of

labour and input

Continuous land use

or cultivation is done

Land use is seasonal

High yields per unit

land

Low yields per unit

land, but high

overall yields

Double or treble

cropping per year

Crops are grown

once a year or

perennially

Irrigation is used in

times of drought

No irrigation is used

Importance of Agriculture to the

Country’s Development

 It provides food to many people

 It provides income to farmers after

selling agricultural products.

 It provides employment to farmers and

those working agro – based industries.

 It provides raw materials for processing

of new products, such as food and

clothes.

 It provides revenue to government

through taxation.

 It provides foreign exchange earnings to

 Government after exporting agricultural

products.

Impact of Agriculture on Environment

 Deforestation as farmers clear large

forest land for opening up new farms.

Tobacco farmers use a lot of trees to

cure tobacco.

 Soil erosion and land degradation when

farmers cultivate in river banks and steep

slopes that accelerate soils erosion.

 Climate change by increased cattle

production whose dungs produce more

methane which is a greenhouse gas.

 Damming for irrigation purposes creates

breeding ground for disease causing

organisms, e.g. mosquitoes.

 Water pollution due to excessive use of

fertilizer and pesticides.

 High frequency of flooding due to

erosion and silting of water bodies.

 Depletion of water resources due to

destruction of vegetative cover.

 Pesticides and herbicides kill useful

organisms in the environment that

disturbs ecosystem.

Page 69 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 14 INTENSIVE RICE FARMING IN SOUTH EAST ASIA

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Locate south east Asia on a world map

1. Identify countries where rice is grown in south eastern Asia

2. Describe the population density of south east Asia

2. Explain conditions favouring rice farming in south east Asia

3. Draw a pie charts showing the cycle of farming activities in a year

4. Relate the cycle of farming activities to the cycle of seasons

5. Describe the problems associated with rice farming in south east Asia

6. Explain problems associated with rice farming in south east Asia

7. Explain the importance of intensive rice farming to the economies of the countries in south

east Asia

Rice Farming South East Asia

Rice is the staple food in the south Eastern

Asia. China and India are the leading rice

producers in the world. Other countries are

Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia,

Philippines, Cambodia, Thailand and

Vietnam

Population Density of South East Asia

South East Asia is the world’s most densely

populated area; this encourages intensive

farming.

Types of Rice

a. Upland or dry rice

It is grown in the upland areas where

monsoon rainfall is the source of

moisture. In steeply sloping areas,

terraces are constructed in order to hold

the rain water.

b. Lowland or wet rice

It is grown in the low lying areas such

as river banks or floodplains, deltas and

coastal areas. Rice is grown in puddies.

A puddy is strip of land enclosed by

bunds which hold irrigation water.

Flood irrigation is practiced Most of the

rice is grown in puddies.

Conditions Favouring Rice Growing

 An average warm temperature of 18

to 27

C throughout the year.

 Rainfall of 2000mm during the growing

season; dry and sunny period of at least

two months towards harvesting.

Page 70 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Abundant water supply in dry season

for flood irrigation.

 Flat land that facilitates flood irrigation.

 Water retentive heavy fertile loam and

clay soil.

 Abundant labour supply for farm

operations like land preparation, sowing

and harvesting.

 Heavy capital outlay that assist to carry

out farm operations.

A cycle of Farming Activities

Month

Season

Puddy

plantation

activities

May

Rainy season

approaches

Preparing

rice fields

and nurseries

June to July

The onset of

rainy season

Sowing rice

August

Rains

increase

Transplanting

September

to October

Rains start to

decrease

Main field

operation

(weeding,

applying

fertilizer, pest

control and

controlling

water levels

November

north – East

monsoon

winds starts

to bring dry

conditions

Draining the

fields

Draining the

fields

December

Dry season

Harvesting,

processing

and storage

January

Dry season

Preparing

rice fields

and nurseries

for the next

growing

season

February to

North – East

Sowing, field

April

monsoon

winds

subsides

maintenance

and

harvesting

Relate the cycle of farming activities to

the cycle of seasons

The region has the following cycle of

seasons:

The Cultivation Operations of Rice

1. Preparations of rice nurseries

Seed beds are prepared a month before

sowing followed by selection of rice

seeds.

2. Preparations of rice fields

Ploughing the fields is done by hand

using hoes or animals are also used.

Then the large clods are harrowed.

3. Transplanting rice seedling

Seedlings are transplanted when they are

one month from sowing and with four to

five leaves.

4. Controlling water level

Water levels needs to be controlled in

order to avoid seedlings due to excessive

moisture that may submerge rice

seedlings.

5. Weeding

Weeds are uprooted.

6. Fertilizer application

Page 71 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Fertilizer is broadcasted in three phases

like:

1. Before transplanting seedlings

2. One month after transplanting

3. Soon before flowering

7. Controlling pests

Snares and traps are used to control birds

and rodents. Some soil pests are

controlled by flooding. Others are

controlled by means of pesticides.

8. Draining off the rice fields

The fields are drained just 2-3 months

before harvesting to facilitate ripening of

rice.

9. Harvesting and processing rice

Rice plants are cut by sickles and

bundled together. The bundles are then

dried in the sun. After drying them, they

are threshed and winnowed by tossing in

the bamboo straw.

Problems Associated with Rice Farming

a. Waterborne diseases

b. Rheumatism or muscle diseases. Most

Asian farmers do not mechanise their

farms because:

 They are poor to hire and buy

machines.

 The fields are very small to

mechanise.

c. Drought

d. Deterioration of soil due to continuous

mono-cropping. This also occurs due to

irrigation in the uplands that erode soil.

e. Salinity due to irrigation by dirty water

f. Rugged terrain hinders irrigation

g. Rising water levels and water lodging

h. Pests and diseases attack rice plants.

Importance of Intensive Rice Farming to

the Economies of the Countries in South

East Asia

 It provides income to rice farmers.

 It provides employment to rice farmers

and those working in agro-based

industries.

 The countries earn foreign exchange

 It improves food security to the growing

population. Rice is the main staple food

to many people in the region.

Rice Farming in Malawi

Rice is grown by smallholder farmers in

Malawi. Most of rice is along in:

 Lakeshore areas of Karonga, Nkhata

Bay, Nkhotakota, Salima and Mangochi

 Shire Valley region

 Wetlands of Lake Chilwa in Zomba and

Machinga.

Rice growing is not enough to meet market

demand both at local and international

markets. As a result, Malawi has to import

rice from other countries.

Problems that Hinder Successful Rice

Cultivation in Malawi

 Loss of soil fertility due to soil erosion.

 Most farmers lack adequate knowledge

in rice growing.

 Frequent droughts that affects many

parts of the country.

 Lack of machinery to boost the

production.

 Lack of better and high yielding rice

varieties.

 Poor prices that discourage famers to

grow more crops.

Page 72 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Diseases and insect pests that attack rice

fields.

Efforts to Rice Farming in Malawi

 Expansion and establishment of

irrigation schemes through the Green

Belt Initiative.

 Investing in research for better rice

varieties.

 Searching for international markets

where farmers can sell their rice.

 Development of simple machineries

such as treadle pumps for irrigation.

 Providing fertilizer and input subsidies

to farmers.

Page 73 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 15 INTENSIVE ANIMAL FARMING IN DENMARK

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Locate Denmark on a world map

2. Explain factors favouring dairy farming in Denmark

3. Identify breeds of cattle raised on dairy farms in Denmark

4. Identify crops grown on dairy farms

5. Explain the importance of crops grown on a dairy farm in Denmark

6. Explain the use of the crops grown on dairy farms

7. Relate the cycle of seasons to farming activities on a dairy farm in Denmark

8. Identify products from dairy farms

9. Explain the term cooperatives

10. Explain the importance of cooperatives in dairy farming in Denmark

11. Explain the importance of dairy farming to the economy of Denmark

12. Locate other dairy farming areas on a world map

Countries Where Dairy Farming is

Practiced

 Holland

 Denmark

 Switzerland

 New Zealand

 France

 South Africa

Dairy Farming in Denmark

There are four islands and a peninsula called

Jutland that make up Denmark. The islands

include Fyn, Lolland, Falster and Zealand.

Eastern Jutland and all the four islands have

fertile soil while in the western Jutland there

is sandy and infertile soil. The infertile land

is reclaimed by various means to make it

worthy cultivatable

Dairy farming is the rearing of animals with

the main purpose of producing milk. The

western Jutland there is sandy and infertile

soil. The infertile land is reclaimed by

various means to make it worthy

cultivatable.

Other animals raised on dairy farms include

poultry, pigs and sheep. Milking short horn

Characteristics of Dairy Farming as

Intensive Farming

 There are small land holdings

 It is labour, input and capital intensive

 There is use of intensive farming

methods

 Milk is the main source of income

Page 74 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

How to Manage Dairy Cattle

Dairy animals produce more milk when

there is proper management as follows:

 Proper feeding: dairy cattle should be

fed on the different types of pastures

(e.g. hay and silage) and a mixture of

grains and grain by-products.

 Proper housing: Each animal should

have enough space and the house should

be strong and leak-proof.

 Very high sanitary conditions: Each

animal needs a very clean environment

in terms clean food, water and the entire

housing environment should be clean.

Favourable Factors that Encourage Dairy

Farming

 Over-farmed land to restore soil fertility

 Availability of a large urban market

 Fertile soils for the growth of fresh and

high grade pastures

 Skilled workforce needed in the

management of dairy animals.

 High levels of technology.

 Availability of high grade pasture

 Mild and wet conditions that promote

the growth of folder crops and natural

pastures

 Availability of very efficient refrigerated

transport as milk is highly perishable.

Crops Associated with Dairy Farming

Pastures for grazing in summer

Wheat, barley, potatoes and sugar beets

Folder crops for indoor feeding during

winter

The Dairy Breeds in Denmark

 Guernsey

 Friesian

 Brown Swiss

 Jersey

 Alderney.

Cycle of Activities on Dairy Farms

Season

Farm activities

Spring

(March to

May)

 Mating dairy cows

(using artificial

insemination and bulls)

 Stall feeding calves for

six months

 Planting crops for

feeding animals, e.g.

turnips and maize.

 Branding calves

Summer

(June to

August)

 Hay making

 Outdoor grazing

 Irrigating pastures

 Milking cows

Autumn

(September

November)

 Cows finish milking

 Maintenance and

development of farm

structures

 Planning for next

season

Winter

(December

February)

 Stall feeding cows (hay

and silage)

Other Animals Associated with Dairy

Farming

 Pigs

 Poultry

 Sheep

Page 75 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Beef cattle raised for other purposes

Products from dairy farms

 Cheese

 Butter

 Yoghurt

 Ice cream

 Condensed milk

 Powdered milk

Roles of Cooperatives in Dairy Farming

Cooperative is a group of dairy farmers who

put their resources for the common benefit

or purpose. Dairy farmers work in groups

that assist each other to improve farming

techniques.

Cooperatives play important roles such as:

 They provide loans to farmers.

 They assist farmers buy inputs in bulk at

relatively lower prices.

 They process milk into various products

on behalf of famers.

 They provide marketing functions on

behalf of farmers like storage,

transportation and grading.

 They offer research and advisory

services to farmers on new and better

farming techniques.

Importance of Dairy Farming

 It provides employment to farmers.

 It is source of foreign exchange.

 Milk is vey nutritious food.

 It is source of income to dairy farmers

Problems of Dairy Farming in Denmark

 Long severe winters prevent outdoor

grazing which makes it difficult and

expensive to stall feed animals.

 There is scarcity of labour force as

youths migrate to towns for white collar

jobs.

 Shortage of land for dairy farming due

rapid population growth.

Dairy Farming in Malawi

There are smallholder farmers who practice

dairy farming in Malawi either individually

or in cooperatives. One of the cooperatives

is Bvumbwe Dairy Farmers Cooperative

Society.

Importance of Dairy Farming in Malawi

 It provides income to farmers.

 It helps to reduce importing of milk and

milk products

 It encourages the development of milk

processing and feedstuff manufacturing

industries.

 It provides fresh milk to the growing

population.

 It helps government to collect revenue

from surtax from farmers.

Problems of Dairy Farming in Malawi

 High surtax charges limit farmers from

making profits

 Lack of capital by farmers

 Lack of proper knowledge and skill

about management of dairy animals.

 Insufficient feedstuffs during due to

drought conditions.

 Prevalence of parasites and diseases

Efforts to Improve Dairy Farming in

Malawi

 Training farmers on the management of

dairy animals

 Providing dairy farmers with loans.

 Providing farmers with cooling facilities

 Providing farmers with veterinary

services.

Page 76 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 16 IRRIGATION FARMING

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Identify a world map showing areas where irrigation farming is practiced

2. Locate areas that depend on irrigation on a world map

3. Describe conditions which necessitate irrigation farming

4. Identify methods of irrigation, e.g. overhead, drip and furrow

5. Explain challenges associated with irrigation farming

6. Explain solutions to challenges facing irrigation farming

7. Identify areas where irrigation is practised in Malawi

8. Explain problems facing irrigation in Malawi

9. Explain how irrigation can be improved in Malawi

Irrigation is the application of water onto the

land with an aim of growing crops. It is used

as a supplement to rainfall more especially

when rainfall is unreliable or in dry areas.

Irrigation farming is an example of intensive

farming.

Areas where Irrigation Takes Place

 Nile Valley in Egypt

 Gezira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan

 Indus Valley in Pakistan

 Hwang-Ho and Yangtze Kiang Valleys

in India

 Israel

 Nchalo in Malawi

 Central Valley of California

Necessary Conditions for Irrigation to

Take Place

 Arid or drought conditions such as in the

deserts

 Adequate and reliable water supply in

the area

 Flat land that holds water

 Heavy clayey soils that retain water

Irrigation Methods

There methods are classified into two main

groups namely:

1. Traditional methods

 Well irrigation

 Basin or annual irrigation

 Furrow irrigation

 Tank Irrigation

2. Modern methods

 Overhead or sprinkler irrigation

 Trickle or drip irrigation

Traditional Methods

1. Well irrigation

A well is a hole sunk into the ground to

reach the water table that provides water

for irrigation.

2. Basin or annual irrigation

It depends on the seasonal flooding of

the river during the period of heavy

rainfall. The walls are constructed on the

flood plain that store water. The

irrigation ditches are dug that distribute

Page 77 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

water to the fields where irrigation takes

place. Sometimes, water is brought into

the fields and flows all over the ground.

Advantages of annual irrigation

 Plants get sufficient moisture as water

covers the whole field.

 It does not require any technical

knowledge for the operation and

maintenance.

Disadvantages of annual irrigation

 It requires lot f water, it is wasteful.

 It encourages water lodging, soil

erosion, leaching of plant nutrients and

soil salinity.

3. Tank Irrigation

It involves the construction of mud-

bunds to make water reservoirs across

called tanks that store water to be used

later for irrigation.

4. Furrow Irrigation

Water flows in furrows or ditches.

Advantages of Furrow Irrigation

 It is cheaper as no special equipment is

used.

 Large areas are irrigated.

Disadvantages of Furrow Irrigation

 It uses large volumes of irrigation

water.

 It is difficult to move farm equipment

throughout the farm due to slippery soil

conditions.

 It time consuming and expensive to

construct furrows.

 There is uneven distribution of water in

the field.

 Moving water washes away nutrients

from the furrows.

Modern Irrigation Methods

1. Trickle or drip

Water is supplied to plant roots through

the pipes which are buried underground.

Advantages of Trickle Irrigation

 It controls loss of water through

evaporation as water directly reaches

the roots.

 It is easy to supply fertilizer to plants

together with water.

 The dry ground between the furrows

provides easy access to workers and

machinery to move.

 It prevents the growth of weeds in

furrows as water reaches the roots only.

Disadvantages of Sprinkler Irrigation

 It is expensive to install and maintain.

 It requires technical knowledge for the

operation and maintenance.

2. Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation:

Water is applied to crops in form of

showers like rainfall. Water that falls on

the leaves evaporates before reaching the

roots.

Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation

 There is uniform application of water

 It does require leveling of lad.

 It is good for the application of fertilizer

and pesticides in solution form.

Page 78 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Disadvantages o Sprinkler Irrigation

 It is expensive to buy and maintain

irrigation pipes and pumps.

 It is less efficient during windy days as

showers are deflected by strong wind.

 It is wasteful as some water may fall

away from roots and some that falls on

leaves evaporates before it reaches

roots.

Characteristics of Irrigation as an

Intensive Farming

 There is use of small land holdings

 Crop cultivation is continuous

 There is double or treble cropping

 There are higher yields per hectare

Problems Associated With Irrigation

 Spreading of waterborne diseases, i.e.

Bilharzia

 It leads to salinity that encourages the

formation of hard-pans

 Dam silting or sedimentation

 Theft of irrigation pipes.

 High cost of buying, installing and

maintaining irrigation equipment and

facilities.

 Water lodging due to excess application

of water.

 Water pollution by some waste dumped

in river or dams.

Solutions to the Problems Associated

With Irrigation

 Desalinating water

 Reusing wastewater

 Proper waste management in order to

prevent water pollution.

 Using efficient irrigation methods that

save water.

 Afforestation to check soil erosion

and silting.

 Storing enough water (water harvesting)

during rainy season to be used during

water crisis.

Irrigation Farming in Malawi

Irrigation is practiced in Malawi farming

during the dry season by the smallholder

famers.

Areas where Irrigation Farming Takes

Place in Malawi

1. Lakeshore areas

Karonga, Salima, Nkhata Bay and

Mangochi

2. Lower Shire districts

Chikwawa and Nsanje

3. Lake Chilwa – Phalombe Plain

4. Wetlands

Limmphasa dambo, Ndindi Marsh,

Elephant Marsh and Vwaza Marsh.

5. Along the main rivers in Malawi, such as

Bua, Lintipe, Bwanje, Rukuru,

Dwangwa and Ruo.

Problems Affecting Irrigation Farming in

Malawi

 Inadequate irrigation technologies that

affects production. Most smallholder

farmers use watering cane instead of

irrigation pumps which can water a large

land within as short period of time.

 Lack of local participation and

ownership of irrigation schemes by local

communities.

 Over-dependency on donor aid, meaning

that when donor aid ceases many

farmers are discouraged.

 Siltation of water bodies.

Page 79 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Depletion of fresh water resources due to

drought and silting as a result of

mismanagement of resources.

 Lack of political will to invest in dam

construction and other agriculture

initiatives.

 Theft of irrigation equipment

 Flooding along the major rivers in

Malawi that destroy the crops at the

onset of rainy season

Ways of Improving Irrigation Farming in

Malawi

 In irrigation at smallholder level by

government and non-governmental

organizations.

 Rehabilitating the existing irrigation

schemes

 Encouraging organic farming and

minimizing agro-chemicals in order to

check water pollution.

 Providing awareness campaigns on

proper waste management in irrigation

schemes.

 Training farmers on proper land and

water management.

 Monitoring water lodging and salination

of irrigation schemes.

Page 80 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 17 IRRIGATION IN ISRAEL

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Locate Israel on a world map

2. Identify the climatic regions under which Israel falls

3. Relate the climate, relief and soil to water supply

4. Identify methods of irrigation in Israel

5. Locate areas where irrigation is practiced in Israel

6. Identify the challenges encountered in sourcing irrigation water in Israel

7. Identify the sources, treatment and distribution of irrigation water in Israel

8. Identify the crops grown under irrigation in Israel

Israel is a small country with an area of

20440km

and half of it is made up of a

desert. It is under the Mediterranean Climate

that has average rainfall of between 400mm

and 800mm in winter. Northern and Western

parts receive rains and desert in south east.

Page 81 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

There are four regions in Israel which are

i. Mediterranean Coastal Plain

It is flat and fertile.

ii. Hilly Country of Galilee

It is bounded by the Sea of Galilee in

the north, Judea Hill in the centre and

Jordan River valley to the east

iii. The Rift Valley Region

The region is below the sea level that

extends from the Sea of Galilee to Dead

Sea via Jordan River.

iv. Negev Desert

It is very hot and dry. There is no rainfall

from May to October. Irrigation takes

place here.

Importance of Irrigation in the Negev

Desert

 It facilitates agricultural production in

order to increase food production for the

growing population.

 It influences settlement to take place in

the region

 It induces business and employment

 It eradicates aridity I the area.

How Climate, Relief and Soil; Influence

Irrigation Farming in Israel

1. Climate

 Aridity climate forced people to

engage in irrigation farming in order

to ensure food security.

 Scarcity of fresh water in the water

bodies encouraged in the

desalination of sea water.

 Use of drip irrigation method

saves water that controls

evaporation.

 Water is supplied to plant roots

through the pipes which are buried

underground. It helps to control loss

of water through evaporation as it

directly reaches the roots.

2. Relief

 Since the fresh water is found below

the sea level, people use pipes and

other water conveyance systems that

distribute water to where it is

needed.

3. Soil

 Due to infertile sandy soils, they use

drip irrigation method which reduce

loss through evaporation.

Sources of Water for Irrigation in Israel

a. Lake Kenerate also known as Lake

Tiberias or Sea of Galilee. It is reliable

source of fresh water supply.

b. Yarkon River which provides water

directly to Negev Desert.

c. Groundwater is tapped using wells

Major Reasons for Water Shortage in

Israel

a. Overconsumption of water by the rapid

population growth and industrialization.

b. Insufficient rain water and high

evaporation rate. Evaporation exceeds

precipitation which keeps the land

always dry.

Methods of Obtaining Water from the

Sources

 Use of pipelines. Pipelines are very

important as they prevent loss of water

through evaporation.

 Canals are also used to lead water to

where irrigation takes place. The

disadvantage of canals is that water is

lost through evaporation.

Page 82 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Water Desalination Processes

Desalination is the process of removing salts

from water to make it suitable for use. Due

to scarcity of fresh water in Israel, water

which is available is desalinated. Water

desalination plants are located at Eilat and

Haifa. The following are the desalination

methods used in Israel.

Desalination Processes

a. Reverse Osmosis or Membrane

Process

Salty water is pressed against a semi –

permeable membrane where fresh water

is allowed to pass through as brine

(salty water) remains behind.

Advantages of Reverse Osmosis or

Membrane Process

 It is cheap as it uses less energy.

 It is very efficient and produces large

volumes of fresh water.

Disadvantages of Reverse Osmosis or

Membrane Process

 It uses very sophisticated technology

which requires high levels of

technological investment.

 It can easily breakdown when the

membrane blocks.

b. Evaporation or Distillation Process

Sea water is led into the hot chambers

where it is boiled to evaporation. Steam

is harnessed and condensed to produce

fresh water ready for irrigation. This

process is similar to the one that is used

for brewing kachasu.

Advantages of Evaporation Process

 It produces high quality water.

 It is effective to treat water with high

quantities of impurities.

 It is cheap as it uses simple technology

Disadvantages of Evaporation Process

 It requires a lot of energy.

 It increases greenhouse effect due to

high energy consumption.

 It produces less fresh water than brine.

c. Vacuum freezing

Sea water is led into the freezing

chambers where it is frozen to form a

thin mixture of liquid water and ice

crystals. Ice crystals are washed to

remove the brine. Then the ice crystals

are melted to produce fresh water

This process is used at Haifa. It is

cheaper than other desalination

processes.

Advantages of Vacuum Freezing

 It needs less energy

 It has causes less corrosion and salt

precipitation.

Disadvantages of Vacuum Freezing

 It is expensive as it requires huge

capital investment.

 Brine returned to the environment

has negative impact on plants and

aquatic animals.

 Desalination plants occupy large

land that would be used for other

developments, such settlement.

Page 83 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Irrigation Methods that are used in Israel

 Sprinkler irrigation method though it is

wasteful sometimes.

 Drip irrigation method is widely used as

it saves water.

The Challenges Encountered in Sourcing

Irrigation Water in Israel

 There is conflict between the Arabs and

Israelites over the use and ownership of

Jordan River

 High cost of pumping water from Sea of

Galilee to Negev Desert.

 High rate of evaporation

 Saline water

 Leakage of irrigation pipes

 Sandy soils are not water retentive

Crops Grown under Irrigation

 Crops grown include tomatoes,

sunflower, sugarbeet, citrus fruits,

apples, pears, peaches, apricot, cotton,

wheat, barley, ornamental plants

(flowers) and spring potatoes.

Page 84 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 18 PLANTATION AGRICULTURE

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1 Explain the term plantation farming

2 Identify areas where plantation farming is practiced

3 Explain the characteristics of plantation farming

4 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming

Plantation agriculture is the commercial

cultivation of perennial crops done on the

estate basis.

World Distribution of Plantation Crops

CROP

COUNTRY

Bananas

West Africa and Latin

America

Cocoa

Brazil, Nigeria, Ivory

Coast, Ghana and

Gabon

Coconut

Malaysia, India,

Indonesia and

Philippines

Coffee

El Salvador, Angola,

Brazil and Uganda

Rubber

Liberia, Sri Lanka,

Indonesia and

Malaysia

Sisal

Tanzania, Uganda,

Madagascar and

Kenya

Sugarcane

All tropical regions

Tea

India, Sri Lanka,

Kenya, Malawi and

Mozambique

Characteristics of Plantation Farming

 Estate farming is practiced. Sometimes

smallholder farming is possible.

 Foreign ownership of plantation estates

with local labour is used

 Plantation farms are scientifically

managed to meet the required standards

 There is heavy capital input

 Onsite processing of the products

 It is labor intensive since crops need

more care

Advantages of Plantation Farming

 It ensures regular supply of the produce

for domestic and industrial use

 Workers are equipped with various skills

about plantation farming

 Harvesting is done quickly, efficiently

and cheaply

 It ensures no wastage of resources since

the wastes are used as fuel or fertilizer

 It provides high – income earnings to

government through export revenue.

 It supports local manufacturing

industries.

Disadvantages of Plantation Farming

 Price fluctuations at the world markets

reduce production

 Plantation crops are affected by the

climatic hazards

 It depends on the presence of cheap

labour leading to exploitation.

 Diseases spread easily due to

monocultural practice.

 Plantation farms occupy large forest land

that cause deforestation

 Lengthy period to start harvests

 Agro-based processing industries cause

water pollution by effluent discharges in

water.

 Heavy rainfall leads to leaching which

deteriorates the soil. As a result, there is

demand for heavy application of

fertilizer.

Page 85 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 19 TEA GROWING AREAS IN MALAWI

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Explain the conditions favourable for tea growing

2. Locate tea growing areas on a map of Malawi

3. Explain a cycle of farming activities

4. Explain the stages of processing of tea

5. Explain the importance of the tea industry to Malawi’s economy

6. Explain showing the value of tea and four other major export commodities for Malawi

China is the world’s largest producer of tea

from which Malawi’s tea originated. Other

world’ tea producers are Sri Lanka, Kenya,

Malawi and Turkey. Britain is the largest tea

consumer.

Tea growing districts in Malawi are

Mulanje, Thyolo and Nkhata Bay. Large

companies own tea estates in the mentioned

districts, however there are smallholder

farmers who are also allowed to grow tea.

Favourable Conditions for Tea Growing

 Rainfall of between 1150mm and

1500mm per annum

 An average temperature of about 18

with no frost

 Well drained heavy loamy soil on gentle

slopes.

 High humidity that produces morning

which promotes the rapid growth of

young tea leaves

 Abundant labour supply for harvesting

and harvesting

A cycle of tea growing operations

1. The nursery

Stem cuttings from healthy tea bushes are

raised in polythene tube.

Sometimes, seeds are sown on wet sand

where germination takes.

2. Cultivation

After 9 months to 1 year, the seedlings

are transplanted into the main fields in

rows..

3. Fertilizer application

Fertilizer is applied between September

and October using foliar method.

4. Pruning

Pruning starts during the fourth year of

growth.. this promotes the growth of tea

bushes.

The importance of pruning

 To promote the growth of new tea

shoots.

 To prevent flowering and fruiting.

 It helps the tea bushes to form a

plucking table along the close hedge in

each row.

 To produce a healthy and well spread

out canopy.

 To maintain a convenient height for

easy harvesting.

5. Topping

Topping is the removal of tea tops; it helps

the growth of young tea leaves which are

Page 86 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

harvested. It helps the tea bushes to form a

plucking table to ease harvesting.

6. Harvesting

Two top leaves and a bud are plucked

because they have high tannic acid

content. Then, the leaves are taken to the

factory for processing. A lot of labour is

required for harvesting.

Processing Tea

The flow chart below shows how tea is

processed. There are three types of

processed tea.

a. Black tea

 Tea leaves are put in a trough where

hot air is blown in older to reduce

moisture content through the process

known as fermentation.

 Then they are rolled into smaller

pieces and fermented to change

colour from green to copper. This

helps to improve flavour.

 Fermentation is stopped by heating

or firing the leaves. Tea produced

here is called black tea.

 Finally, the leaves are sorted out,

graded and packed ready for sale.

b. Green tea

If green tea is wanted, fermentation is

not done. Tea leaves are pan-fired to

prevent fermentation. Other processes

remain the same as in black tea.

c. Oolong tea

Green tea leaves undergo partial

fermentation. After that, they are put in a

shade for 5 hours and roasted for 10

minutes. Then, they are rolled and

twisted before they are finally re-fired.

The whole process requires a lot of energy

that comes from electricity and wood. To the

north of the estate, there is blue gum

plantation which is a source of fuel wood.

Problems Faced by the Estate

 Old tea bushes become tough and

affected by fungal diseases called

armilaria.

Smallholder Tea Farming

Smallholder farmers are also allowed to

grow tea because of the following reasons:

 They do not require large land as tea is

high yielding

 They have tea growing knowledge as

they already worked in the tea estates

before

 They get alternative sources of income

Smallholder Tea Authority (STA))

It was created by the government where

farmers are allowed to grow tea on

contractual basis. The roles of STA are to:

 Provide marketing functions to tea

farmers.

 Transport tea from farmers to markets.

 Maintain infrastructure such as roads

that facilitate transportation.

 Procure inputs for farmers and provide

them as loan.

 Provide credits to farmers.

 Provide extension services to farmers.

Page 87 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Countries that Import Malawi`s Tea

Germany, Holland, Pakistan, South Africa,

Great Britain, Canada, United States of

America and Central Europe

Importance of Malawi`s Tea Industry

 It is source of foreign earnings to the

country

 It provides income to tea growers after

selling

 Tea is used as a drink

 It provides employment to tea farmers

and those working in agro-based

industries.

 It promotes the growth of secondary

industries

Health benefits of drinking tea

 It is rich in vitamins and minerals.

 It is a stimulant because it contains

caffeine which enhances mental

alertness.

 It promotes digestion

Page 88 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 20 INDUSTRIALISATION

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1 Explain the term industrialization

2 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of industrialisation explain the term

industrialization

3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of industrialisation explain the term

industrialization

4 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of industrialisation

Definition of the term industrialization

Industrialisation refers to the process in

which a society transforms itself from a

primarily agricultural society into the one

which centred on the manufacturing of

goods.

The development of industries started with

Industrial Revolution in UK in 1840. Then

the knowledge about Industrial Revolution

spread to other countries across Europe such

as Germany, Belgium and France as well as

Japan and USA.

Factors that influenced the start of

industrialisation

a. Invention and modern technologies such

as steam engine

b. Increasing human population that

provides labour and market.

c. Agricultural production which increased

food production.

d. Financial innovations like banks and

stock exchange market.

e. Coal and iron deposits.

f. Government policies that promote

commercial activities.

New inventions during the Industrial

Revolution

a. The flying shuttle for weaving using a

thread of yard by John Kay.

b. The spinning jenny by James

Hargreaves.

c. The water frame that replaced a hand-

driven spinning jenny by Richard

Arkwright.

d. The spinning mule that combined the

features of the spinning jenny and water

frame.

Characteristics of industrial revolution

 Production is by hand rather by hand.

 Expanded markets

 Development of transport network

 Increased capital accumulation

 Growth in large enterprises and

increased specialization

 Increase in size and predominance of

cities

 Emphasis is concentrated to

manufacturing

Advantages of industrialisation

 It increases employment opportunities

 Working with large machines improves

efficiency of production rather than

human work.

Page 89 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It increases the presence of affordable

goods since machines produce large

quantities of goods.

 It improves skills amongst workers.

 It helps countries to earn foreign

currency through exports of domestically

produced goods.

 It helps to utilize available resources in

the country.

 It aids the development of towns.

Disadvantages of industrialisation

 Use of large machinery leads to

unemployment. Machines replace many

workers.

 Burning of fossil fuels in industries

cause air pollution. This leads to serious

environmental problems like global

warming, depletion of ozone layer and

erratic rainfall.

 Industries exploit natural resources that

damage ecosystem.

 Dependence on machinery for

production leads to loss of human skills

and handcrafts.

 Some industrial products and activities

cause severe accidents and disasters.

Page 90 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 21 INDUSTRY

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Identify types of industries, e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary

2. Explain the meaning of the term system

3. Explain industry as a system in terms of inputs, processes and outputs

4. Identify the major industrialised areas on a world map

5. Describe factors influencing the location of major industrialised areas

6. Explain the risk and disaster management impact of industries.

INDUSTRIES

Industry is places where raw materials are

changed into new products. It is also defined

as the process of changing raw materials

into the finished products. An industry is an

open system because it consists of three

interrelated components which are inputs,

processes and outputs.

Characteristics of Industry as an Open

System

 It collects inputs from the environment,

e.g. energy, labour, finance and seeds.

 Turning or processing of inputs into

outputs, e.g. planting, marketing,

production

 Outputs, i.e. goods and services are

produced as a result of processing.

 It gets labour from environment

Types of Industries

There are four types of industries namely

a. Primary Industry

It produces raw materials from the

environment, such as agriculture,

fishing, forestry and mining.

b. Secondary Industry

It turns raw materials into finished

products. Industries that manufacture

new products with employed labour is

called factory. They include beer

brewing, textile, cement making and

soap making.

c. Tertiary Industry

It is concerned with distribution of goods

and provision of services. E.g. there are

postal services, transportation, teaching,

and extension services. Manufacturing

does not take place here.

d. Quaternary Services

There are research and provision of

information as well as expert evaluation

such as research and consultancy,

marketing and journalism.

Both tertiary and quaternary industries

are service industries.

Types of manufacturing industries

a. Heavy manufacturing industry

 They use large and heavy machines

that occupy large space.

 They are located on flat land.

 They use large quantities (heavy

and bulky) of raw materials which

require them to be located near raw

materials.

 There is hired labour and expertise.

Page 91 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 This requires high skills.

 It requires less hired labour with it

without skills.

b. Light manufacturing industry

 They use light machines that

occupy large space.

 They use small quantities of raw

materials.

 They produce small and high value

commodities such as tailoring,

bakery and weaving.

c. Cottage industry

 It is located in the rural areas such

as craft, farming and basket making.

 It is home – based industry as it

depends on family members for

labour.

 It uses simple tools such as knives.

 There is no hired labour.

Factors for the location of industries

1. Labour supply

Skilled, unskilled and cheap labour is

essential for the growth and

development of industries.

2. Market

There must be a large population

provides market for the finished

products.

3. Capital

It is used for infrastructural

development, buying raw materials,

buying machinery and paying for

labour and other services.

4. Raw materials

Some industries are located to where

raw materials are found abundantly.

Locating industries near raw materials

saves costs of importing or transporting

them over long distances. Some

materials are bulky and heavy to be

carried over long distances.

5. Transport

It is used to transport raw materials and

dispatching finished products to various

points of consumption.

6. Water supply

Water is needed in the manufacturing

industries for mixing and cleaning

things.

7. Government policies

Some government policies may attract

or repel investors.

8. Political stability

Absence of wars and violence attracts

many foreign investors.

e. Industrial inertia

It refers to the tendency of an industry to

stay in an original place even if the

factors which led to its location are no

longer present.

The reasons for industrial inertia

 High cost of physical transfer to a new

site.

 Fear of losing customers in old site.

 Fear of disrupting business by recruiting

and training new staff at the new site.

 Proximity to skilled labour that has

relevant experience.

 Desire to remain where business

developed its roots.

 Presence of good transport and

communication structures in the old site.

Industries that are located in any place not

considering the presence of raw materials

Page 92 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

are called footloose industries. E.g. tourism

industry is an example of footloose industry.

Major Industrial Regions of the World

Western Europe

This is the largest industrial region of the

world. The countries include Germany, UK,

Spain and Portugal.

The factors for the development of

industries are as follows:

 High levels of technology in

engineering, chemicals, textiles and

electronics

 Availability of abundant power supply,

e.g. hydro-electricity, coal and nuclear

energy.

 Availability of markets provided by

large town-based industrial population

North America

In this region there are Canada and USA.

The factors include:

 Presence of rich mineral reserves, E.g.

iron and steel

 Abundant source of energy.

 Proximity to Europe for trade

 Cheap transport for raw materials and

finished products, more especially in

the Great Lakes Region.

China and India

 Large population densities that provide

labour and ready markets to finished

goods.

 Easy access to water transport.

 Presence of raw materials such as

cotton, steel, iron ore, tin and tin.

 Abundant hydro-electric power supply.

Japan

Japan has the following factors:

 Abundant power supply of coal, nuclear

and hydro-electricity.

 Presence of large ports which facilitates

importation of raw materials and

exportation of finished products.

 Presence of large markets in the

Mainland Asia.

 Establishment of technically based

education that promotes the growth of

industries.

Australia

 Abundant power supply, hydro-

electricity

 Presence of rich mineral reserves of

aluminium, iron and steel.

 Good water transport that aids import of

raw materials.

South Africa

 Rich gold reserves which promote the

growth of other industries.

 Good transport for importation of raw

materials.

 Abundant labour from within the

SADC countries, like Malawi and

Mozambique.

Page 93 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Others: Japan, South Korea and Argentina.

Disaster, hazard and disaster risk

management issues related to industries

Disaster is any sudden event that causes

much suffering to people during the time of

occurrence.

Hazard is a situation that poses threat to

human life, health, property and

environment.

Disaster risk management refers to the

systematic process that involves all activities

done before, during and after the occurrence

of a hazard event to prevent or reduce the

impact of a disaster.

Industries pose a lot of danger that affect

people and environment. Some of disasters

include the following:

a. Acid rain

Industries produce sulphur dioxide that

when it combines with water vapour in

the atmosphere it produces acid rain.

Acid rain destroys vegetation and

statutes.

b. Global warming

Burning of fossil fuel releases carbon

dioxide and other greenhouse gases that

absorb the sun’s heat and raise the

atmospheric temperature.

c. Ozone depletion

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) gases

produced from industries destroy ozone

layer and allow the sun’s ultraviolet rays

to reach the Earth’s surface where it

causes skin cancer in people.

d. Floods and land slides

Industries attract large populations that

settle in river side, wetlands and

lakeshore areas which accelerate silting

and flooding.

e. Epidemics

Industries cause social instability and

sexual exploitation which encourage the

spread of HIV/AIDS. In addition, high

population concentration facilitates the

spreading of disease outbreak.

f. Water and pollution

Industrial effluents deposited in water

cause water pollution.

g. Technological hazards

 Gas and oil explosion

 Industrial fire

 Toxic and chemical release

 Oil spills

 Nuclear accidents

 Plane crash

 Car accidents

 Train accidents

 Wars and terrorist attacks

Disaster, hazard and disaster risk

management

 Ensure proper storage of hazardous

materials

 Workers should be provided with safety

tools and attire, such as fire

extinguishers and gloves.

 Providing civic education and awareness

on the mitigation evacuation of people.

 Upgrading structural designs of structure

that may withstand forces of

earthquakes.

 Establishing early warning systems.

 Recycling hazardous wastes in order to

reduce chances of disease infections.

 Conducting safety audits.

Page 94 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 22 MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTTY IN JAPAN

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Locating Japan on a world map

2. Locate major industrial areas in Japan

3. Describe factors for the growth of the motor vehicle industry in Japan

4. Explain the stages of motor vehicle production

5. Explain advantages and disadvantages of automation/robot technology in motor vehicle

production

6. Explain the significance of the motor vehicle industry in Japan

Japan is made of four islands such as

Hokkaido, Honshu and Kyushu. Honshu is

the largest island and largest industrial area

in Japan.

Motor Vehicle Companies in Japan

 Toyota is the largest car manufacturing

company in Japan and the world.

 Others include the following:

Honda, Daihatsu, Yamaha , Mitsubishi,

Mazda, Nissan, Suzuki, Lexus, Isuzu,

Subaru and Kawasaki

Major Industrial Areas in Japan

a. Keihin or Kanto Industrial Region:

Chiba, Kanagawa, Saitama and Tokyo.

b. Nagoya Area or Chuky – Takai

Industrial Region: Aichi, Gifu, Mie and

Shizuoka.

c. Kinki or Keihanshin

d. Setouchi or Southern Honshu and

Northern Honshu

e. Toyota City

Factors for the Growth of Motor Vehicle

Industry in Japan

 Availability of iron and steel industries

which are the main raw materials for car

manufacturing industry.

 Availability of local and international

markets

 Presence of cheap transport for

assembled cars and car spares.

 Presence of abundant power supply, i.e.

hydro-electricity land coal.

 Availability of skilled labour for

technical work.

Stages in Motor Vehicle Production

Stage 1: Car Body Design

Computer-aided design (CAD) technology is

used to draw car models that suit people’s

lifestyle and preferences.

Page 95 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Then clay models are constructed which are

then studied by motor vehicle manufacturing

experts to be accepted for production.

Stage 2: Building Production Technology

Car manufacturing tools (pressing machines)

are made. The machines are sued for

manufacturing cars in after the models are

accepted.

Stage 3: Production of Cars

There are activities in this stage such as:

a. Pressing

Steel sheets are pressed to make

different body parts, such as doors and

roof.

b. Body welding

The pressed metals are welded together

to create the desired body.

c. Painting

The car is painted to make it look shinny

and beautiful.

d. Assembling

Different autoparts are attached to body

of a car such as engine, wiring, interior

components, instruments, sensors,

breaks, glasses, stirring, tires, and

various microchips.

Stage 4: Inspection

Some car parts (breaks, headlights and

emission) are rigorously inspected for safety

purposes.

How Cars are Manufactured in Japan

 The system used when manufacturing

cars is known as the Assembly Line

Technique or Taking Work to the

Worker.

 Under the system, a conveyor belt is

used to bring parts to various points

along the line to be assembled. When a

car reaches the last point is now ready

for use.

Advantages of Assembly Line Technique

 It leads to massive production

 There is high quality production as

workers master their specialized skills.

 It brings about specialization and

efficiency which speed up production.

 There is easy maintenance as each part is

easily replaced with an identical one

within the point along the assembly line.

 It creates high employment

opportunities.

 There is low cost of paying workers.

 Automation is easier.

Disadvantages of Assembly Line

Technique

 There are low wages for less skilled

workers.

 It involves high capital and energy

inputs.

 It leads to boredom amongst workers

due repetitive and monotonous nature of

the work.

Automation in Car Manufacturing

Automation in car manufacturing involves

the application and use of robot technologies

to do the work. Robots replace workers in

some areas of car production.

Advantages of Automation

 It promotes safety of workers. Robots

can work in work environment that

Page 96 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

would be difficult and hazardous to

human beings.

 Work is done very quickly.

 It increases production.

 It saves payments for workers.

 It reduces mistakes and boredom.

Disadvantages of Automation

 Development of robots is very

expensive.

 It leads to unemployment as one robot

may replace many workers.

 Robots do not make decisions like

human beings; they depend on people to

do the work.

 It needs more expertise.

Toyota Motor Corporation

It was founded in 1939 by a Japanese

engineer, Kiichiro Toyoda. It is the largest

car manufacturing company in the world.

There are many Toyota Companies in many

countries in the world.

Toyota cars have three major labels such as

Toyota, Lexus and SCION

Why Owning Cars is Scarce in Japan

a. There are high car parking fees.

b. There are high inspection fees for safety

standards.

c. Availability of excellent transport

network.

Reasons for Scattered Car Assembly

Plants

 Serve the scattered markets all over

world.

 Save the cost of transporting assembled

cars to the markets. It is more expensive

to transport assembled cars than the

spare parts.

 Ensure that each factory has assembly

line and output size that maximizes

production

 Take advantage of cheap land in regional

plants

 To save the cost tax charges of exporting

cars.

Importance of Motor Vehicle Industry in

Japan

 It provides employment opportunities

 It provides better and comfortable means

of transport.

 It promotes the growth of other related

industries to car manufacturing, e.g.

rubber industry.

 It provides foreign exchange.

 It promotes the development of

infrastructure, road network.

 It promotes transport and trade within

and across the borders.

 It helps people to enjoy a leisure time.

Problems Faced by Motor Vehicle

Industry in Japan

 Global economic crisis that weaken the

purchasing power of cars.

 Natural disasters such earthquakes and

volcanoes affect the industry.

Problems Associated with Motor Vehicle

Industry in Japan

 Motor accidents

 Air pollution by car exhausts

 Noise in cities

 Traffic jams that cause delay in

movement

 Over-exploitation of fossil fuels.

Page 97 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 23 TOURISM IN AFRICA

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Locate major tourist centres in Africa

2. Explain factors that promote tourism in Africa

3. Explain the impact of tourism in Africa

4. Explain the meaning of the term eco-tourism

5. State the importance of eco-tourism

Tourism refers is a country`s economic

sector that involves travelling and visiting

different places of interest.

Aims of Tourism

 Rest and relaxation

 To see new places of interest

 To study various parts of the world or to

have a research of the world

Major tourist centres in Africa

1. Pyramids of Giza and Egypt

2. Victoria Falls

3. Masai Mara National Park in Kenya

4. Kilimanjaro Mountain in Tanzania

5. Cape Town in South Africa

6. Djenne in Mali

7. Zanzibar

8. Lake Malawi National Park

9. Marrackech in Morocco

Major tourist centres in Malawi

 Lake Malawi National Park

 Mulanje Mountain

 Liwonde National Park

 Game Reserves like Nkhotakota, Mwavi,

Vwaza Marsh and Majete

 Lake Malawi

 National Parks, e. Kasungu, Nyika,

Liwonde, Lengwe and Lake Malawi

National Parks.

Types and Forms of Tourism

a. Ecotourism

It is a form of tourism which aims at

avoiding negative and brings positive

impact on the environment. It tries to

conserve and sustain ecosystem. It

involves a small group of tourists. It is

also known as green tourism, soft

tourism, responsible tourism,

appropriate tourism and alternative

tourism.

Advantages of ecotourism

 It promotes conservation of

environment

 It does not interfere with ecological

balance.

 The money raised in ecotourism

helps to preserve natural

environment

Page 98 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Disadvantages of ecotourism

 Reduced employment opportunities

 The government gets less money

from few tourists.

 Tourists use air transport in remote

areas which causes air pollution.

 It uses relocation of people so as not

to interfere with ecosystem.

b. Mass tourism: It involves a large group

of tourists. It brings negative effect on

the environment.

Advantages of mass tourism

 It brings a lot of money as a large

number of tourists visit the country.

 Many people get employment.

 It strengthens international relations

as many people different counties

come together.

Disadvantages of mass tourism

 It depletes natural resources since

more land is needed for

infrastructural development.

 Loss of traditional values due to

interaction with local inhabitants.

 It causes pollution due to increased

consumption of resources.

c. Incentive tourism: it is a travel warded

by commissions or organisations.

d. Health tourism: it is a visit to health

resorts and establishment made by either

medical or non-medical personnel.

e. Domestic tourism: it is travel by

indigenous population of the country.

f. Common interest tourism: It is a form

of tourism by people who have a cultural

interest.

Factors that promote tourism in Africa

a. Physical Factors

Attractive scenery like mountains and

forests

Pleasant climate

b. Economic Factors

Accessibility by air, water and road

Good accommodation (hotels and

motels)

Good shops, entertainment centres, good

food, tour guides and travel agents

c. Cultural Factors

Historical sites

Entertainment centres

Impact of Tourist Industry

1. Positive impact

 It provides employment to many people

in various sectors such as transport,

hotels, construction and manufacturing

 It is source of foreign exchange earnings

 It puts the destination centres on a map

 It helps to bring international standards

to destination countries

 It promotes international understanding

and public relations

 It promotes development of small scale

industries, e.g. wood carving.

 It helps to improve the country`s

infrastructure, such as roads and airports.

2. Negative impact

 Employment is seasonal

 It is affected by some devastating

factors like disease outbreaks, wars

and natural disasters

Page 99 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 Breakdown of traditional values as a

result of influx of large number of

visitors.

 Pressure on resources in a host

country

 Reduced food production as farmers

lose farming land to tourism

infrastructural development.

 It brings foreign diseases into the

country.

 Employment is seasonal which puts

local workers at a disadvantage in

one season.

 Breakdown of traditional values as a

result of influx of large number of

visitors.

The interaction between different cultures is

called assimilation. It is also known as

acculturation or accommodation. On the

other hand, demonstration effect refers to

imitating other people`s behaviour and

assimilate it as one`s own.

Problems faced by tourism industry in

Africa

 Foreign ownership of hotels and tourist

resorts that send money to their countries

at the expense of host countries.

 It is expensive to visit tourism

destinations.

 Heavy tax on tourism services prevents

some tourists from visiting some places.

 Poor and inadequate infrastructure such

hotels and poor road conditions in some

parts.

 Malaria scares away visitors.

 Poaching and deforestation reduce

important animal and plant species

which attract many tourists.

 Political instability in many African

countries.

Page 100 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

TOPIC 24 MAJOR WORLD TRANSPORT ROUTES

Success Criteria

Learners must:

1. Identify the major sea and air routes of the world

2. Explain the importance of the major sea and air routes

3. Explain the challenges faced by land-locked countries

4. Identify the major railway lines in Africa

5. Explain reasons for the distribution of railway networks in Africa

Transportation refers to physical carriage of

goods and services from one place to

another.

The main modes of transport are

 Air transport

 Water transport

 Land transport

Factors to Consider when Choosing the

Type of Transport

 The nature of goods to be transported.

Some goods are more perishable than the

other and that perishable goods need

specialized type of transport. For

example, milk requires refrigerated

transport.

 The cost of transporting it

 The speed at which goods are to be

transported

Comparative running costs of water, rail,

road and air transport

Below is an explanation of the diagram

1. Water transport is the cheapest mode

over a long distance.

2. Rail transport is relatively cheap over

medium distances.

3. Road transport is the cheapest over a

short distance but the costs increase with

an increase in distance.

4. Air transport is the most expensive.

Air Transport

It uses aeroplanes, helicopters and balloons.

It carries passengers and high value goods.

Advantages of Air Transport

 It is fastest

 It uses direct routes

 It is relatively free of physical barriers

such as mountains and valleys

 It can reach other areas which are not

accessible by other means of transport.

Page 101 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It is used for the military to support the

national security systems

Disadvantages of Air Transport

 It very expensive

 Airports are located away from towns

 There is a limited carrying capacity

 Airplanes cannot use foreign air space

without permission well in advance

 It cannot transport heavy and bulky

goods

 Bad weather condition causes accidents

 Plane accidents are severely dangerous

Water Transport

Water transport is categorized into inland

water way that uses lakes, rivers and canals

as well as ocean or sea transport

Advantages of Water Transport

 It uses existing routes except in case of

canals

 It is the cheapest means of transport for

large quantities of goods.

 Water accidents are rare

 It promotes international trade.

Main Disadvantages of Water Transport

 It uses indirect routes

 High cost of construction and

maintenance of ports

 It is very slow

 If is negatively affected by physical

factors like storms, fog and ice that

cause accidents

The Main Ships that Sail on the Oceans

a. Passenger ships: They carry passengers

and mail

b. Cargo ships: They carry freight such as

container ships, oil tankers

c. Cargo liners: They carry people and

freight

d. Packets: Type of ship used for crossing

narrow straits. They are sometimes

called ferry-packets.

e. Others: Dredgers that deepen the ports

and Ice breaker

The Main World`s Sea Routes

North Atlantic Route

 It is a busiest and richest route

Page 102 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It connects North American Region and

Western Europe

 Goods carried from America to Europe

are wheat, cotton, copper, steel, iron and

tobacco

 Goods from Europe to America are

textiles, machinery, wine, fertilizer and

chemicals.

Cape Route

 It connects Europe with Australia

 It passes through South Africa Cape of

Good hope

 It was very much used when Suez Canal

was closed. Its importance has declined

by the reopening of Suez Route in 1975.

South American Route or South Atlantic

Route

 It connects South America with Europe

Suez Canal

 Connects Red Sea and Mediterranean

Sea, Europe with Asia and Australia

 It is 160km long

 It has no lock gates that delay transport

 There are two towns such as Suez on

Red Sea side and Port Said on

Mediterranean side

 Goods from Far Eat to Europe are

petroleum, coffee, timber, wheat, meat

and sugar while from Europe to Far East

there are machinery, cars, drugs, textiles

and chemicals

Panama Canal

 It connects east and west coasts of North

America.

 The two towns are Panama City on a

Pacific side and Colon on Atlantic side.

Page 103 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

 It has three sets of locks that delay

transit time. It also does not allow big

ships to pass.

 Is 80km long but ships take longer time

to pass than Suez because it has three

lock gates whereas Suez has no lock

gates that delay movement of ships.

Lock gates are the structures along a

canal which help ships to by-pass the

rapids.

 It connects eastern and western coasts of

North America with Asia and Europe

St. Lawrence Seaway

 It connects the Great Lakes Region and

the Atlantic Coast through St. Lawrence

River.

 It has about four lock gates.

 The goods transported here are iron ore,

wheat, timber, furs and coal.

 The disadvantage is that it is closed in

winter four months because it freezes.

Another disadvantage is that it is narrow

that it is difficult to accommodate large

ships.

Lock Gate Operation

A lock is a structure that enables a ship to

bypass the rapids or waterfalls. It is costly to

construct, operate and maintain locks. Lock

operation also delays transit. The lock

operation is as follows:

Page 104 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

A. The gates are opened as the ship is

approaching B because water level is the

same between A and B.

B. Both gates are closed to allow water

level rise with the sheep. This enables

the sheep to pass through gate M.

C. Gate ahead the ship is opened so as to

allow the ship to pass.

Factors that Influence Ocean Routes

 Supply and demand: availability of

goods and passengers to be carried.

 Availability of ports

 Absence of physical barriers like fog,

icebergs and storms

 Nature of cargo

Land Transport

There are two main types of land transport

such road and railway transport.

Road transport

It uses taxis, buses, lorries and tankers. Ox –

wagons use roads. Some people also travel

on foot as pedestrians.

Advantages of Road Transport

 Road transport is very convenient

 Roads provide direct link between

producers and consumers

 It provides direct link between

producers and consumers

 It is fast over short distance

 It is flexible as it provides door to door

service.

Disadvantages of Road Transport

 It is expensive to transport heavy and

bulky goods

 High incidences of road accidents

 It is affected by traffic jams in cities and

towns.

 Since many people own cars, it is the

most polluting means of transport.

 Bad weather conditions negatively affect

road transport.

 It causes noise pollution

Advantages of railway transport

 It carries large amount of commodities at

once.

 Rail accidents are very rare

 It is fast over long distances as compared

to road and water transport.

 It is not affected by traffic congestion on

rails.

 It is cheaper to transport heavy and

bulky goods.

Disadvantages of rail transport

 Deep valleys and mountains prevent the

construction of rail lines and roads

 High overhead expenses and running

costs of railways

 High costs of laying and maintaining

railway tracks and sleepers

 High costs of construction and upkeep of

rail station

 It does not provide door to door service

Factors that Affect Rail Distribution in

Africa

Railway lines are not evenly distributed in

Africa due to a number of reasons. Some

regions do not have even one while others

have dense rail connectivity as illustrated in

the figure below.

Page 105 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

The main factors that affect railway

connectivity in Africa are:

 Relief of the area

 Productivity of the area

 Availability of fuel to be used by railway

transport

 Level of economic development of the

area served by railway

 Frequency of thunderstorms, sandstorms

and landslides

Reasons for Low or High Rail

Connectivity in Some Parts of Africa

a. North Africa

 The area is very unproductive

 Sandstorms cover railways

 Absence of settlement in the Sahara

desert

b. North East Africa

 There are very high Ethiopian

highlands with their escarpments and

deep valleys

c. Central Africa

 Frequent thunderstorms and lightening

 Landslides are common due to

continuous rainfall in the Equatorial

climate

 Presence of mountains, such as

Kilimanjaro, Elgon and Ruwenzori

 Low level of economic activities

d. Southern Africa

There are a lot of economic activities,

E.g. mining, farming and

manufacturing industries

Nacala Railway

a. It runs from Bilila in Malawi to Nacala

port in the Indian ocean, a distance of

690km long

b. It is connects Malawi with Indian ocean

c. Goods to Malawi are agricultural

products (sugar, tobacco, tea, maize) and

raw materials while from Nacala include

finished products like fertilizer,

machinery, chemicals, textile and

stationary.

Tazara Railways

 It is an acronym for Tanzania and

Zambia Railway (TAZARA).

 It extends from Kapiri Mpochi in

Zambia to Dar-es-Salaam a distance of

1667km long.

 It provides alternate outlet for Zambia to

the sea

 The only disadvantage is that port of

Dar-es-Salaam is congested which leads

to delays in handling cargo.

Tazara and Nacala Railway Lines

Page 106 of 107

Written and Compiled by J.H. Holly, Mkomachi CDSS

Trans- Canadian Railways

There are two main railways namely:

a. Canadian National Railway (5600km

long)

It joins Port Halifax on the Atlantic

Coast and Prince Rupert on the Pacific

Coast

b. Canadian Pacific Railway (4800 long)

 It connects St. John on Atlantic

Coast and Vancouver on the Pacific

side. Goods exported through these

railways include wheat, pulp, iron

ore, oil, fertilizers, and coal.

 The main disadvantage with these

railway lines is that they are closed

in winter as they are blocked by ice.

Road transport is cheaper than rail and

ship over a short distance but it is most

expensive over a long distance. Ship is very

expensive over a short distance but the

cheapest means over a long distance.

Importance of the world transport

 It promotes trade and industrial

development

 It helps to improve the living standards

of people by transporting life sustaining

goods to their homes.

 It facilitates the rescue systems in times

of emergencies.

 It creates employment opportunities.

 It allows labour mobility as people move

to different parts seeking job

opportunities.

Problems of the world transport

 It causes fatal accidents

 Burning of fossil fuels in locomotives

causes air pollution.

 Increased number of cars, ships,

aeroplanes and trains deplete fossil fuels.

 Deforestation due to road and rail

construction.

 Displacement of people and animals due

to the construction of transport

infrastructure.

Page 107 of 107

Geography syllabus-based teaching and learning summaries: written and compiled by J. H. Holly

(O994798236/0888330414)

REFERENCES

Bunnet, R.B. (1999). Physical Geography in Diagrams for Africa. Essex: Longman

Chanyenga, S. (2014). Blantyre: CLAIM

Chawala, A.F.S. (2003). Geography Module 8, Geomorphology. Domasi: Domasi College of

Education.

Gareta, H.K. (2017). Complete Human and Economic Geography, Students Book 4.Lilongwe:

Grey Matter Ltd.

Leong, G.C. and Morgan G.C. (1982). Human and Economic Geography. Oxford. Oxford

University Press.

MIE (2014). Geography Teaching Syllabus. Domasi: Malawi Institute of Education

Minns, W.J. (1984). Geography of Africa, New Edition. London: Macmillan

Phiri, F.R. (2003). New Social and Economic Geography. Blantyre: E + V Publications.

Phiri, F.R. (2006). Senior Certificate Physical and Human Geography. Blantyre: Dzuka.

Waugh, D. (1995). Geography: An Integrated Approach. Surrey: Thomas and Sons Limited.

White, R. (1990). Africa in Focus: Physical, Human and Economic Geography. London:

Macmillan.