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TOPIC 1 REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the meaning of the term remote sensing
2. Explain the meaning of the term geographical information system
3. Explain aerial photographs, satellite images and recognizing information
4. Explain geographical information
5. Identify relationships among phenomena by analyzing geographical information.
Meaning of the term remote sensing
It is the technique of obtaining information
about objects using special equipment that
are not in physical contact with the objects
being investigated.
Or it refers to the science of acquiring
information about an object or a
phenomenon using equipment which is not
in physical contact with them.
Energy required to detect the target is called
electromagnetic radiation. The total amount
of energy that strikes an object is called
incident radiation. Electromagnetic
radiation is the energy that travels through
space in wave form at a speed of light. The
intensity of light being detected is then
translated into information that a computer
can read.
Electromagnetic wave has two main
characteristics such as
a. Frequency
It is a number of wave peaks that pass
through a fixed point per unit time.
b. Wavelength
It is the distance between two wave
peaks.
NB: Longer wavelength has less energy
content as compared to shorter wavelength
which contains more wave peaks.
How remote sensing works
Electromagnetic radiation is produced
from the sun and other sources that reach
the Earth’s surface.
On the Earth’s surface, some energy is
absorbed by surface features, some is
reflected and the remaining is emitted to
remote sensors which analyse, process it
to produce sensor data output and
transmit it to receivers on Earth’s
surface.
Then the satellite images are displayed
in computers, TV screens and other
devices on the Earth’s surface. Satellite
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images show information like shape of
land, drainage systems and weather
phenomenon.
The total amount of radiation that the
Earth’s surface receives is called incident
radiation. Sensor is a device that detects
emitted electromagnetic radiation from an
object. These sensors are mounted on
satellites, aeroplanes, helicopters and other
equipment.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
It is a range of all forms of electromagnetic
waves. Types of electromagnetic spectrum
are:
a. Radio waves
Produced from radio and TV
transmitters
They are the longest wavelengths
They also carry cellular signals.
b. Microwave radiation
It is produced from short radio
transmitters which are used for
cellular communication, satellite
communication and in microwave
ovens.
It can be used to provide information
like temperature.
c. Infrared Radiation (IR)
They are produced by warm and hot
objects such as sun.
It cannot be seen with naked eyes,
unless you wear vision goggles.
It is used in remote control devices
that we use for TVs in our homes.
Some snakes have this light to detect
their prey.
d. Visible Light
It is visible light that enables to see
things and the colours.
It is a narrow spectrum that helps us
to identify colours.
It is produced by fireflies, light bulbs
and stars.
e. Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation
It is produced by the sun and other
hot objects in space.
It has shorter wavelength, higher
frequency and higher energy than
light energy.
It is only visible by some insects like
bees.
It responsible for causing skin
cancer, however it is filtered out by
the presence of ozone layer in the
stratosphere
f. X-Rays
They are produced naturally by
neutron stars.
Artificially, they are produced by x-
rays.
X-rays are used in hospital by
doctors to detect broken bones. It is
also used at check points to detect
the contents of travelers’ bags.
g. Gamma Rays
They are produced by bursting
cosmic or astronomic objects in the
universe.
They are used in hospitals to detect
the inside the patients’ bodies.
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Process in remote sensing
Energy interaction with the atmosphere
and Earth’s surface
a. It is reflected off the object
b. It is absorbed by the object
c. It is transmitted through the object
Basic components of remote sensing
a. Sensor: an instrument used to record
data such as computerized cameras.
b. Platform: a vehicle used to on which the
sensor is mounted such as tractors and
aircrafts.
Types of remote sensing platforms
a. Land-based platforms
They are used to record detailed
information about the surface which is
compared with collected information
from aircrafts or satellite. Examples
include, towers tanks, tall buildings,
ladders, tractors and vans.
b. Aerial platforms
They use aircrafts, balloons and
helicopters with sensors.
Advantages
Very detailed images are taken
It facilitates the data collection at any
time and at any point of the Earth’s
surface.
c. Satellite platforms
Satellite is any heavenly object that
revolves around the planet. For
example, moon is the satellite of
planet Earth. Artificial satellites are
launched in space for remote
sensing, communication and
telemetry services. Solar panels are
used to provide energy the
operations of satellites.
Images sent by satellites are viewed
on the computer monitors or TV
screens using computer software
called Google Earth and
Geographical Information Systems
(GIS).
Satellites have sensors that react to
bands of specific frequency and
wavelength. The sensors convert
photons falling on electrical signals
that are assigned numerical or digital
values which are then transmitted
receiving stations to the ground.
Then, computers on the ground
convert them into the readable
information or images.
Types of satellite platforms
a. Low Erath Orbits (LEO)
It is placed at the lowest altitude of
about 16km where there is minimum
gravitational influence.
It helps in installing new installing
new instruments, fixing broken
things and inspecting damages of
instruments.
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It orbits the Earth for 9 minutes. It
moves very quickly.
It aids short time visits and
experiments in space.
Disadvantages
Atmospheric drag slows down the
satellites.
It is not effective due to their speed.
b. Geosynchronous Satellites (GEO)
They are placed at very high altitude
of about 36 000km above the sea
level.
It orbits the Earth for 24 hours and
remains at the same point above the
position above the Earth’s surface
every day.
Uses
To monitor weather at one point of
the Earth.
Use for telecommunication services.
Beam television signals directly into
the house. That why a TV antenna
points to the same position.
Disadvantages
It is expensive to launch
It is not to repair it from the shuttle
c. Geostationary Orbit Satellite
Platform
The satellite remains high above the
Equator.
It remains in the same position where
it is always directly above the same
spot on the Earth’s surface..
d. Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO)
They are located at oval orbits which
enable them move slowly where they
can be useful and quickly where they
are of little use.
It moves faster when it is closer to
the Earth than when it is farther
away.
e. Sun synchronous or Polar Orbiting
Satellite Platform
They are placed near the Earth’s
surface at the altitude ranging from
700km to 1000km above the sea
level.
They are numerous.
They travel from north to south
poles.
They are placed in relation to the sun
to ensure consistent illumination
conditions when acquiring images.
Types of remote sensors
a. Passive sensors
It detects radiation energy that is
reflected or emitted by the object
under observation.
It is used during daylight. Types of
passive sensors include the
following:
1. Gamma-ray spectrum: it
measures the amount of gamma
ray energy emitted by upper soil
due to radioactive decay
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minerals. It is used for mineral
exploration.
2. Aerial camera: it mounted on
aeroplanes and low orbiting
satellites to take aerial
photographs.
3. Our eyes: we capture light
energy and converts into images.
b. Active sensors
They provide their own source of energy
to detect objects. Some types of active
sensors are:
1. LIDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging)
It is a technology that measures
distance by illuminating a target with
a laser light and analyzing the
reflected light. It combines the
distance with location to build an
image of a terrain composition.
2. RADAR (Radio Detection and
Ranging)
This device uses reflected radio
waves to detect to determine the
presence, location and speed of
distant objects.
Uses
o It is used for air traffic control:
to guide planes upon take off and
landing. It also helps to track
down other planes on the ground
and in the air.
o It is used by the military to
detect the position of enemies
and guide the weapons.
o It is used for road traffic
control for speed trap.
o It is used for weather
forecasting for detecting storms
and rains.
3. SONAR (Sound Navigation
Ranging)
This device uses sound to detect the
position of objects underground or in
water by transmitting sound waves
and measuring time for an echo to
come after hitting an object.
Geographical Information System (GIS)
Meaning of GIS
It is a computer-based mapping tool that can
show where particular events, features or
conditions are on Earth and give other
information about them as well.
It is used for map making and show different
types of data one set of data is layered on
top of each other that show spatial patterns
and relationships such as elevation, drainage
system, amount of precipitation and mineral
reserves.
Components of GIS
a. Appropriate hardware
It includes computer with large memory
capacity, video and hard disk storage
space.
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b. Appropriate software
It provides the functions and tools that
people need to store, analyse, manipulate
and display information. It is easy to
make maps showing different
information for a particular area.
Properties of good GIS mapmaking
software
Ability to enter and work with land
features and information such as
names and location of features or
places.
Database management system to
organize and manage information.
A map creator to make maps easily
viewed, rational and simple to
interpret and analyse.
Simple and usable graphical
interface (GUI). For more accessible
software to users.
c. Data
It is the information that you want
display on the map. The two types of
data are:
i. Spatial data
It is information about ground
features such as roads, political
boundaries, rivers, forests,
buildings and towns.
ii. Attribute data
It shows information on the area of
interests like population
concentration or density and land
use patterns..
d. People
GIS requires people with very high
technical skills (in ICT) who understand
how GIS works and have knowledge
about data being searched.
Aerial photographs, satellite images and
recognizing information
Photograph is an image or picture created by
a camera. There are groundlevel and
aerial photographs.
Aerial Photograph
It is a photograph which is taken high up in
the air by aeroplanes or satellites.
Difference between maps and aerial
photograph
Map
Photograph
It is true to scale
It is not true to
scale. Scale is
reduced with
distance from
camera.
Maps show
features only put
by map makers
Pictures include a
lot of details of
which some are not
required
Maps take a long
time to draw
Aerial photographs
can be taken within
a short period of
time
Maps have labels
and symbols that
represent real
ground features
Aerial photographs
do not have names
of places and
heights of places
It is easy to
Features are
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interpret ground
features on maps
using symbols
and signs
Maps show only
those features that
are important for
the purpose of the
map.
difficult to identify
and interpret
without symbols
Photographs show a
lot of detail viewed
through the camera.
Types of Aerial Photographs
i. Vertical Aerial Photograph
It is taken at the right angle to the
ground. There is no hidden ground.
There are also two types of oblique
photographs such as high and low
oblique.
ii. Oblique Aerial Photograph
It is taken at an inclined angle to the
ground. It has hidden ground and the
landscape is not true to scale because
pictures near the camera look bigger
than those away from the camera.
There are two types of oblique aerial
photographs such as low oblique and
high oblique aerial photographs.
High oblique shows horizon while low
oblique does not show horizon.
Uses of aerial photograph
It helps cartographers to make maps
It helps to determine land use and
environmental conditions.
Satellite Images
Satellite is a man made object that is
placed in orbit around the earth or planet
in order to collect and transmit
information.
Satellite image is the image of the whole
or part of the earth taken by artificial
satellites. They are photographs of the
earth from space.
The modern technique of observing the
earth space using satellite sensors and
aircraft cameras is called remote
sensing. Remote sensing means sensing
things from a distance.
Aerial photographs and satellite images
are used by cartographers to make
maps.
Cartography is the art of making maps;
therefore, cartographers are the map
makers.
Computer software used to view satellite
images of the earth is called Google
Earth. This allows people to zoom and
glide over the photographs of the earth’s
surface and explore every part of the
earth.
Differences between satellites images and
aerial photographs
Aerial photographs have better
resolution while satellite images have
poor resolution as they are taken very far
and disturbed by weather conditions.
Aerial photographs are taken at a lower
altitude while satellite images are taken
from above the atmosphere in space by
satellites orbiting the earth.
Aerial photographs are taken by cameras
in aeroplanes, drones or balloons
whereas satellite images are taken and
recorded by electronic scanners mounted
on satellites in space.
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Advantages of Satellite Images
Large amount of data is collected
within a short time.
Information collected does not
recognize international boundaries
hence there are no delays in collecting
data.
The data can be taken from areas where
it is difficult to reach e.g. deep seas
Promote human security as it is used by
the army.
Forms a basis for research.
Disadvantages of Satellite Images
Since are taken from space, they are
disturbed by weather changes such as
clouds.
There are low quality pictures since they
are taken from very far from the ground.
Applications of Aerial Photographs and
Satellite Images
Used by cartographers to make maps.
In archaeology, these are used for
locating minerals under the ground.
Town planners use them in urban studies
to develop and locate infrastructure,
roads and new facilities.
In climate, these are used for detecting
climatic hazards such as droughts, floods
Uses of GIS and remote sensing
1. They are used in environmental impact
assessment
2. They are used by the law enforcement
agencies to identify crime hotspots.
3. They are used in the military operations
for attacking and defensive purposes.
4. They are used for disaster management
purposes.
5. They help in making good natural
resource management plans and policies
that control the use of natural resources.
6. They help in urban planning by
providing.
7. They provide information about farming
areas, insect pests, crop diseases, fire,
flooding and environmental issues.
8. They help doctors to identify the disease
outbreaks and the causes.
9. They are used for water, road and air
transport control
10. They are used in business management
to promote the marketing functions like
advertisements.
11. They are used to monitor weather
phenomenon.
Other technologies related to GIS
a. Desktop Mapping
It is computer software that supports the
creation of thematic maps of diverse
application.
b. Database Management System
(DBMS)
It is a computer program designed to
large set of structured data and run
operations on the data requested by
numerous users.
c. Remote sensing
It is art and science of making
measurement of the Earth using sensors
which collect data.
d. Global Positioning System (GPS)
It is a worldwide global navigation
system that provides information from
the orbiting satellites. GPS is used to
detect position, speed of moving objects
and depth of places among others.
Google Earth
Relationships among phenomena by
analyzing geographical information
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GIS helps to understand the
relationship that is there which helps
in the following areas:
It is used by policy makers to identify
the source of threats to the environment.
It helps to monitor rainfall patterns
It assists in mapping the resource
locations in an area.
It also assists in planning of
communication routes.
It helps in studying agriculture and
environmental degradation.
It helps to monitor wildlife migratory
patterns.
Uses of GIS and remote sensing
It is used for mapping large scale fires
It helps to explore mineral deposits
under the ground.
It helps to explore and study the floor
and marine features.
It is used in checking and monitoring
elements of weather such as clouds.
It helps in monitoring geological
activities and natural disasters.
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TOPIC 2 WETLANDS IN MALAWI
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the term wetland
2. Locate wetlands on a map of Malawi
3. Describe the flora and fauna of wetlands
4. Explain the importance of wetlands
5. Explain human activities that threaten wetlands
6. Explain strategies for managing wetlands
Wetland refers to an extensive low lying
land which is seasonally waterlogged. It is
also called swamp, marsh or bog.
Examples of wetlands in Malawi:
Vwaza Marsh
Ndindi Marsh
Elephant Marsh
Lake Chilwa Marsh.
Importance of Wetlands
They are habitat for birds and other
endangered species.
They control flooding by holding
excessive rain water temporary before it
joins the main water body.
They prevent water pollution by:
- Filtering out sediments
- Absorbing pollutants
- Filtering pollutants.
They beautify the environment.
They provide a ground for scientific
studies and research.
They are good place for spawning,
breeding and nursery for fish.
They reduce the impact of global
warming by locking up carbon and
preventing it from entering the
atmosphere.
Human Activities that Threaten Wetlands
Draining wetlands for crop cultivation
and settlements
Deforestation
Construction of dams and water
diversion structures that keep wetlands
dry.
Dumping wastes into the wetlands that
endanger life there.
Mining
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Climate change: prolonged drought and
excessive evaporation deplete water
resources.
Strategies for Managing and protecting
Wetlands
Declaring wetlands as protected areas by
law, e.g. Vwaza Marsh Game Reserve.
Afforestation and reafforestation in
deforested wetlands.
Making and enforcing laws about the
protection of wetlands to avoid
encroachment into
Practicing proper land husbandry
practices.
Providing public awareness on the
importance of conserving wetlands
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TOPIC 3 WILDLIFE IN MALAWI
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the meaning of the term wildlife
2. Identify wild life reserves in Malawi
3. Explain the importance of wildlife in Malawi
4. Describe activities endangering wildlife in Malawi
5. Identify conservation measures of wildlife species
Wildlife refers to animals and plants that
live in natural undomesticated state. They
are not tamed by people. They include:
1. Birds (Guinea fowls)
2. Mammals (antelopes, rhinos, elephants,
lions, leopard, buffaloes, hyenas,
monkeys).
3. Reptiles (lizards, alligators).
4. Snakes
5. Insects
6. Aquatic animals (fish)
7. Amphibians (frogs)
8. Micro organism
9. Trees, e.g. Mulanje cedar
Wildlife Habitat
Wildlife habitat refers to physical
environment where animals live and get the
necessities of its life. The wildlife habitats
include the following:
a. Lakes and rivers
b. Forest
c. Wetlands
d. Nature sanctuaries
e. National parks
f. Game reserves
Importance of wildlife
They provide nutritious food to people.
Plant and animal resources provide raw
materials. E.g. timber for making
furniture.
Wild plants and animals are used for
manufacturing of medicine.
Plant and animal materials provide
medicine.
Forests are good sites for scientific
studies and investigations.
They are of high aesthetic value which
attracts tourists and bring money to the
country.
Wildlife Reserves in Malawi
a. National Parks
Nyika National Park
Kasungu National Park
Liwonde National Park
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Lengwe National Park
Lake Malawi National Park
b. Game Reserves
Nkhotakota Game Resrve
Vwaza Game Resrve
Majete Game Resrve
Mwabvi
c. Nature sanctuaries
Lilongwe Nature Sanctuary
Michiru Nature Sanctuary
d. Forest reserves
Dzalanyama Forest Reserve in Dedza
/Lilongwe
Chikangawa Forest Reserve in Mzimba
Chongoni Forest Reserve in Dedza
Ntchisi Forest Reserve
Endangered Species
It is a population of plants or animals which
is at a risk of complete extinction because it
either small in number or threatened by
changing environmental conditions.
Examples of Endangered Species
a. Aquatic Species: Hippopotamuses,
birds and other fish species like chambo,
cichlids (mbuna fish) tooth fish, cod,
sharks, whales and Whales.
b. Wildlife Species: golliras, leopards,
lion, tiger, rhinoceros, eagles and other
birds. This also includes other plant or
tree species like muwanga and naphini.
How Human Activities Endanger Wildlife
Species
a. They destroy food and habitat of wildlife
b. They kill plants and animals themselves.
c. They deplete soil moisture
Human Activities that Endanger Wildlife
Species
Overfishing
Deforestation.
Setting bushfire.
Drainage of wetlands.
Deforestation.
Poor farming methods that encourage
soil erosion.
Poaching.
Expanded farming and settlement.
Destruction of physical habitat.
Natural Factors that Endanger Wildlife
Species
Geological disasters like volcanoes and
earthquakes.
Climate change that alter ecological
balance.
Wildlife overpopulation that animals
compete for space, food and water.
Poor environmental conditions that fail
to support the living organisms, such as
inadequate food.
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Possible Solutions to Endangered Species
Making laws to prohibit hunting,
transporting and trading animal plants
and products of endangered species.
Establishing protected areas like national
parks and game reserves.
Afforestation and reafforestation in order
to restore the habitat and food of
wildlife.
Providing public awareness on the
importance of wildlife.
Afforestation and reafforestation.
Ways of Preserving Endangered Species
Protecting rare plant and animal species.
Establishment of conservation areas such
as national park and game reserves.
Catching game where they are prone to
extinction or overpopulated and
relocating them elsewhere.
Civic education on environmental
management.
1Legislating and enforcing policies that
protect environment.
Reasons for Preserving Endangered
Species
They improve and maintain ecological
balance.
They provide medicine
They modify climatic conditions by
cleaning air and contributing to
hydrological cycle.
They beautify the countryside that attract
tourists.
They provide food to human beings.
Wildlife Conservation Efforts
Declaring the world environmental
commemoration days by the United
Nations, e.g. World Water Day.
Establishing environmental conservation
clubs such as Wildlife Clubs and Village
Beach Committees.
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TOPIC 4 WASTE MANAGEMENT
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the meaning of the term waste
2. Identify different types of wastes
3. Explain the effects of poor waste disposal
4. Discuss the term waste management
5. Identify strategies for managing wastes
6. Discuss the importance of managing waste
Meaning of Waste
Waste is any unwanted material that has
been discarded by its user.
Types of Wastes
Wastes are classified into groups based on
source and properties.
Types of Wastes Based on Sources
a. Municipal wastes
They come from homes, markets, streets
and other public places such as garbage,
plastics, metals, pieces of glass and rags.
b. Industrial wastes
They come from companies and
factories such textiles, breweries,
petroleum industries, food processing
industries, cement industries and plastic
manufacturing industries.
c. Construction and demolition wastes
They are debris that comes from the
construction and demolition of various
infrastructures such as metals, glasses
wood, concrete and excavated soil.
d. Agricultural wastes
These are crop residues, animal remains
and empty pesticides containers.
e. Clinical or medical wastes
They are waste from hospitals or health
centers such as blood from patients,
surgical tools, used bandages and cotton
wool.
Types of Wastes Based on Properties
a. Biodegradable wastes
They are wastes that can decompose by
means of bacteria. They include fruit
peels, wood, food remains, sewage and
human wastes.
b. Non-degradable wastes
They do not decompose and be dissolved
into the soil. Examples include plastic
papers objects, tin cans, scrap metals and
remains of household appliances.
c. Hazardous wastes
They are wastes that are toxic to people,
animals and general environment such as
nuclear waste, pesticides, explosives and
electronic waste.
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d. Non-hazardous wastes
They are beneficial and can be reused,
such as food remains, papers, crop
residues and rags.
Waste Management
Waste management refers to the activities
that deal with waste before and after it is
used as well as its minimization, transfer,
storage, recycling and final disposal.
Ways of Managing Wastes
a. Prevention or Reduction
It means eliminating or using less
quantities or amounts of resources so as
to reduce amounts of wastes. E.g. one
must use handbags for shopping instead
of buying plastic bags that litter
everywhere.
b. Re-using
This means using the same product for
repeatedly either for the same or
different purpose. For example,
discarded bottles can be used for storing
other liquids.
Advantages of Re-using
It is cheap as it requires less energy,
labour and capital.
It does not need treatment that causes
pollution.
They substitute natural resources
which help to conserve natural
environment.
It is cost saving for customers and
business.
Disadvantages of Re-using
It is time-consuming to sort and
prepare the materials.
Transporting and cleaning the
materials have environmental costs.
Some materials are hazardous to
human health.
Disadvantages of Re-using
Recycling of products is very
expensive since it requires energy.
Recycled products are not durable.
Wastes can easily spread diseases
due to lack of proper handling.
c. Recycling
It means processing or treating wastes to
make them usable in future. E.g. paper
recycling is a good example.
Advantages of Recycling
It helps to reduce pollution.
It helps to conserve resources for
next use.
It provides jobs to some people.
Recycled materials are cheap.
It helps to reduce the amount of
wastes which minimizes the need for
more landfills and incinerators.
d. Resource recovery
It involves extracting more valuable
resources from wastes which can later be
recycled. For example, some can be used
to produce energy.
e. Incineration
It is the process of destroying or
disposing of hazardous wastes by
burning. Biological medical wastes are
destroyed in this away. Incinerators are
constructed like inn hospitals.
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Advantages of Incineration
It reduces the bulk of wastes form
environment.
Wastes are used to produce energy
during burning.
Incineration helps to destroy disease
causing organisms and poisonous
chemicals.
Disadvantages of Incineration
Incineration destroys important
wastes that would be recycled.
Incinerator locations produce bad
smell.
Building of incinerators is very
expensive.
Operation and maintenance of
incinerators require skilled
personnel.
Ash from incinerators contains toxic
substances which pollute the
environment
f. Landfill
It involves disposing of wastes by
burying or excavating them into the
ground. It is commonly and traditionally
used in homes and industries.
Ministry of Local Government through
the City Engineer Department provides
the City Cleaning Services. The
department identifies the landfill sites.
Already established landfill sites in the
cities include:
a. Lilongwe
Mchinji Road Landfill
Area 38 Landfill
Area 55 Landfill
b. Blantyre
Mzedi Landfill
c. Zomba
Chikowi Landfill
Songolo Landfill
d. Mzuzu
Mchengautuwa Landfill
Advantages of Landfill
It is relatively cheap.
The wastes can be reused for energy
production.
Landfills can be for the production
of compost manure.
Landfills have specific location
which can easily be monitored.
Disadvantages of Landfill
Dangerous liquids that flow from
landfills pollute the surrounding
water and soil resources.
Poisonous gases generated from
landfills contribute to greenhouse
effect.
Landfills occupy land that would be
used for other purposes.
Landfills harbor dangerous and
disease causing organisms such as
mosquitoes and houseflies.
Importance of Proper Waste
Management
It enhances public health by eliminating
hazardous wastes.
Some wastes can be turned into organic
manure.
Transporting, recycling and collection of
some wastes provide employment to
people.
It helps to maintain clean and attractive
environment.
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It helps to prevent pollution in the
environment.
Challenges of Waste Management in
Developing Countries
Lack of funding from government to
remove and manage wastes in cities and
towns.
Local authorities lack capacity to
monitor and enforce regulations about
waste management.
Rapid urbanization which increases
consumption and releasing of energy.
Lack of knowledge on waste
management.
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TOPIC 5 RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Identify climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives in Malawi
2. Explain other climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives
3. Describe policies, measures and instruments to mitigate and adapt to climate change in
Malawi
4. Identify international agreements on climate change
5. Explain the challenges and benefits of the international climate change agreements
6. Explain ways of promoting climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives at
community level
Climate change brings about negative
effects on the livelihoods. Some of the
effects include global cooling and global
warming, heavy storms, floods, frequent
drought, outbreak of diseases and insect
pests. These challenges disrupt the human
activities on Earth and the quality of life.
Therefore it is needed to take a step in to
come up with climate change mitigation and
adaption initiatives in order to maintain and
improve the quality of nature.
Mitigation means actions or efforts that are
aimed at reducing the harmful human
activities that cause climate change. It
involves preparing or planning for the next
climate change problems such as floods.
Climate change adaptation refers to
people’s efforts to reduce the impact of
climate change on vulnerable communities
and their livelihoods.
Climate change mitigation and
adaptation initiatives in Malawi
a. The National Environmental Policy
(NEP)
It aims at reducing the emission of
greenhouse and encouraging various
stakeholders to reduce the impact of
climate change.
b. The Malawi National Strategy on
Sustainable Development (MNSSP)
It helps to reduce the damage caused by
the effects of climate change. It also
promotes sustainable industrial
development.
c. The National Biodiversity Strategy
and Action (NBSA)
It focuses key biodiversity issues and
various intervention programmes by
various stakeholders.
d. The National Adaptation Programme
of Action (NAPA)
It helps to reduce vulnerability of
communities to adverse effects of
climate change and increase adaptability
to climate change by:
e. The Malawi Government and
Development Strategy (MGDS)
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It deals with disaster management and
climate change.
Other climate change mitigation and
adaptation initiatives
Countries are promoting afforestation
and bio-fuel plantation programmes.
The Malawi Government is promoting
the development and use of renewable
energy resources such as water, wind
and sun.
Promoting the use of low-cost modes of
public transport instead of large buses.
Integrating issues of climate change into
the school curriculum to raise awareness
to the public.
The government is promoting family
planning in order to reduce pressure on
natural resources.
Policies, measures and instruments to
mitigate and adapt to climate change in
Malawi
a. National Environmental Policy (NEP)
It aims at reducing the adverse impact of
climate by targeting on emission of
greenhouse gases and air pollution.
b. The Malawi National Strategy on
Sustainable Development
It aims at reducing the damage and loss
of life caused by natural disasters as well
as providing concrete actions for
implementing NEP.
c. The National Biodiversity Strategy
and Action Plan
It targets key biodiversity issues. It
ensures monitoring, recovery and
conservation of biodiversity that help to
support local community livelihoods in
the areas of food security and medicine.
d. The National Adaptation Programme
of Action
The policy promotes community
community’s capacities to adapt to the
effects of climate change through
various measures such as:
Improving sustainable rural
livelihood.
Improving agricultural production
in low rainfall areas
Restoring forests in Shire Valley
areas.
Promoting disaster preparedness to
effects of climate change.
e. The Malawi Growth and Development
Strategy
One of its priority areas is climate
change and disaster management.
Inadequate funding from government
and effective early warning systems
affect the implementation of the policy.
International agreements on climate
change
a. United Nations Framework
Conventions on Climate Change
It deals with greenhouse emission
mitigation, adaptation and finance.
b. Kyoto Protocol
Its main aim is to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases such as
chlorofluorocarbon, methane, carbon
dioxide and sulphur hexafluoride.
c. Copenhagen Accord
It aims at limiting the global
temperatures by 2
0
C. The conference
also agreed to support the developing
countries in mitigating and adapting to
the effects of climate change.
d. The Tripartite Agreement on Climate
Change Adaptation and Mitigation
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It was adopted by COMESA and SADC
in order to address the impact of climate
change through successful adaptation
and mitigation actions aimed at building
socio-economic resilience of
communities through Climate-Smart
Agriculture (CSA).
e. Global Methane Initiative
It encourages the use of clean energy to
reduce the release of greenhouse gases.
It also ensures proper waste disposal.
f. Group on Earth Observations
It observes the global climate and
coordinates the climate change
observations throughout the world.
g. Carbon Sequestration Leadership
Forum
It focuses on developing and improving
technologies that reduce concentration of
carbon dioxide in the Earth’s
atmosphere.
Challenges faced by international climate
change agreements
Inadequate financial resources for
achieving mitigation and adaptation
programmes.
Inadequate and contradicting
information about climate change.
Failure by countries or organisations and
industries to comply with environmental
conservation principles
Some countries pulled from the
international climate change agreements
which weaken the effort by some
countries to combat climate.
Wars in some countries prevent the fight
against climate change.
Benefits of the international climate
change agreements
They have helped to reduce emission of
greenhouse gases.
They have accelerated the development,
use and transfer of cheap and
environment-friendly technologies in the
world.
They strengthen international
cooperation.
Ways of promoting climate change
mitigation and adaptation initiatives at
community level
Growing drought tolerant crops
Restricting irrigation farming
Promoting afforestation and
reafforestation.
Engaging in irrigation farming
Use of alternative sources energy to
replace fuel energy.
Practicing water harvesting and
conservation
Ensuring enough food reserves in stores
Conducting public awareness and civic
education campaigns
Practice proper agricultural methods that
do not cause soil erosion and silting.
Providing emergency shelters to
homeless victims
Providing relief items and shelter to
affected people in the affected areas such
as food, clothing, utensils and beddings.
Making settlement away from disaster
prone areas (e.g. mountain slopes and
river banks).
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TOPIC 6 MINERALS
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the meaning of the term mineral
2. Explain types of minerals
3. Locate mineral deposits on a world map e.g. coal, copper, iron ore, gold, aluminium and
uranium
4. Describe uses of minerals e.g. coal, copper, iron ore, gold, aluminium and uranium
5. Explain mining methods
6. Explain the effects of mining
7. Locate places where uranium is found on a map of Malawi
8. Describe the occurrence of uranium
9. Explain how uranium is extracted and processed
10. Describe the importance of uranium mining in Malawi
11. Identify the countries where uranium from Malawi is exported
12. Explain the possible impact of uranium on the environment
13. Describe the cost-benefit analysis of uranium mining in Malawi
Mineral refers to a chemical compound in
the earth`s crust which makes the basis of
the rock. An Ore is a rock that contains
minerals worthy mining. Metal is chemical
element that can be processed by special
treatment in order to produce metals.
Characteristics of Minerals
1. Naturally occurring. They are not
manufactured in the industries.
2. They are inorganic in nature. Anything
from animal and plant matter does not
qualify to be a mineral. For example,
coal and petroleum are not minerals.
3. They are solids and occur as solids at
normal temperature and pressure on the
Earth’s surface.
4. They have regular chemical composition
in fixed proportion. Substances that
contain more elements are called
compounds. Most minerals are made by
the combination of only 8 elements such
as oxygen, silicon, aluminium, sodium,
potassium, chlorine, iron and
magnesium.
5. They have orderly internal structure.
Their atoms are arranged in a regular,
repeating and orderly pattern.
Types of Metallic Minerals
a. Metallic Minerals
They are processed into metals.
o Ferrous Minerals
They contain iron, e.g. Gold,
nickel, platinum, chromite, iron
and diamond
o Non-Ferrous Metals
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They do not contain iron, e.g.
copper, tin, manganese and
aluminium.
b. Non-Metallic Minerals
They do not produce metals when
processed, e.g. Halite, asbestos and
gypsum
c. Organic Minerals
They are formed from dead organisms,
such as plants and animals, e.g.
petroleum, natural gas and coal. They
meant to produce energy
Minerals and their Uses
Mineral
Property
Use
Aluminium
It has a high
melting and
boiling
point.
It is
malleable.
It is light.
Used for
making
aluminium
paint,
aluminium
foil, aircraft,
utensils,
electric cables,
refrigerators,
Gold
It has high
melting and
boiling
point.
It is used for
manufacturing
gold tooth
fillings,
jewelries,
ornaments and
coins
Coal
It is a fossil
fuel. It is
brownish or
dark in
colour.
It is source of
thermal
energy. It is
used to
manufacture
drugs,
fertilizer,
timber
preservatives
(creosols) and
coke which is
used to process
iron and steel.
Copper
It is reddish
in colour. It
is resistant
to corrosion.
It is for
manufacturing
electric cables,
coins, parts of
engines and
phosphor
bronze (an
alloy of
copper, tin and
phosphorous.
Uranium
It is silvery
white, shiny,
radioactive,
malleable,
ductile and
light in
weight.
Used to
produce
nuclear
energy, bombs
and missiles.
Other uses
To propel
space ships
To detect
leaks,
pollutants,
movement of
underground
water, x-ray
machines in
hospitals
Iron
It is hard,
brittle and
purely
lustrous.
It is used for
alloy
preparations,
magnetic
extractions,
metal
extraction,
reducing
agent. It is also
used for
making body
structure of a
vehicle,
surgical
instruments
and reducing
agents.
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Gypsum
It is soft
soluble in
water, low
thermal
connectivity,
sound proof
and non-
combustible.
Building
plaster
Making
cement
Used as
fertilizer
Used as fire
and sound
barriers
Formation of Minerals
Minerals are formed through two main
processes that include
a. Magmatic process
Here, minerals are formed by the
cooling and crystallisation of
magma. Heavier minerals sink and
accumulate at the bottom of the
liquid rock of the magma chamber to
form ores. E.g. magnetite, chromite
and ores of nickel.
On the other hand, magma and the
chemical solutions which it contains
change the surrounding rocks in
which minerals are introduced into
the existing country rocks. E.g. iron
ores and ores of copper
(chalcopyrite, malachite, cuprite,
chalcocite, and bornite).
b. Solution process
Through leaching, minerals are
washed down the layers of soil
profile where they accumulate in the
zone of oxidation or subsoil, e.g.
bauxite.
Insoluble minerals and weathered
materials are carried by the running
water down the valley where they are
concentrated as ores on the flood
plain, e.g. gold, diamond, tin and
platinum
Mining
It is the process of extracting minerals from
the earth`s crust.
Factors to consider before mining
Mineral content in relation to the cost of
mining operations.
The difficulties of mining operations.
For example, deep mining is very
expensive and risky in case in collapse
of mines.
Geological nature of the mining site.
Some mining operations may trigger the
earthquake.
Accessibility of markets and favourable
costs.
Levels of technologies and availability
of power supply.
Demand for minerals should exceed the
environmental problems likely to come
Methods of Mining
a. Adit or Drift Mining
It is the extraction of minerals on the
side of the mountain or valley.
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Horizontal tunnels called adits are dug
following the mineral seam. Mineral
seam is a band or layer of minerals.
Advantages
It is cheap
Simple tools are used
Disadvantages
It destroys the environment on the
mountain side
It creates deep pits on valleys and
mountain side
b. Opencast Mining
This is also known as surface or strip
mining. This involves the extraction of
minerals which are found near the
earth`s surface. Overlying soil is
removed to expose mineral seam. Then
mineral ore is dug out or blasted and
transported to factories for processing.
Advantages
o It is cheap and easy
o Simple tools are used
Disadvantages
It creates deep pits that cover land
that would be used for farming,
settlement and other developments
Mining dust causes air pollution and
poor visibility
It leads to deforestation and
ecological imbalance
c. Shaft or Deep Mining
This is done when minerals are found
deep down the earth. A metal structure
called shaft is sunk into the ground.
Horizontal tunnels called galleries are
made following the mineral seams.
Water is removed. Fresh air and lighting
are provided to the miners. When a
mineral ore is reached, it is dug and
blasted.
Advantages
More and valuable minerals are
recovered.
It does not affect physical
environment on the land surface
It does not cause noise pollution
since sounds are confined to the
underground.
Disadvantages
It is very expensive
High risk of deaths and injuries when
mines collapse.
It pollutes the underground water.
d. Solution Mining
The method involves the drilling of
holes deep down into the ground to
reach the mineral deposits. The minerals
are then dissolved and pumped to the
surface. Finally, water is evaporated by
the process of recrystallisation. Copper,
salt and uranium are mined in this way.
This method is also called In-situ
leaching (ISL) or in-situ recovery (ISR).
Advantages of Solution Mining
It is safer than shaft mining where
miners have to go underground.
It helps to recover deep and rich
minerals
It is quick way of extracting
minerals.
It is cheaper than underground or
shaft mining.
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There is no disturbance of surface
natural resources. For example,
there is little or no deforestation.
Disadvantages of Solution Mining
It leads to land subsidence in old and
abandoned mining sites.
The mining liquids may contaminate
the ground water resources.
It requires large volumes of water to
dissolve the minerals.
e. Alluvial Mining
It is used to extract heavier minerals of
gold, diamond and tin. It involves the
extraction of minerals that are mixed
with water and other solid inorganic
particles like sand, gravel, mud and
small stones in rivers and lakes. Such
materials are washed away leaving
behind the minerals. Alluvial mining is
done in the following ways:
i. Using forceful water from hose
pipes.
This is used to extract minerals
which are found in the dry lands.
Water from hose pipes is blown onto
the ground where light sediments are
removed and leave behind heavy
minerals.
ii. Panning
A simple pan is used to scoop out the
mineral bearing sediments. When the
mixture is stirred, the heavier
minerals settle to the bottom of a pan
and lighter residues are removed
from or are allowed to spill out of a
pan.
iii. Dredging or Sub-marine Mining
This is done when extracting
minerals from the sea. A special
equipment known as a dredger is
used.
Advantages of Alluvial Mining
It is easy mining method.
It is cheap way of mining
Disadvantages of Alluvial Mining
It may cause siltation in the nearby
water bodies by a large amount of solid
sediments.
Dredging makes land surface
unattractive due to large fragments
which pile up on the surface.
The effects of Mining
a. Positive Effects
It provides employment to miners.
Minerals are raw materials.
It gives the country foreign earnings.
It is source of government’s revenue
through taxes.
It promotes infrastructural
development. Better roads and power
lines are constructed to rural areas
where mines are located.
It encourages the development of
industries, e.g. car industry.
It facilitates the growth of towns.
b. Negative Effects
Death of miners due to collapse of
mines.
Deep pits hold water that may be a
breeding ground for disease
causing organisms.
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It causes deforestation on the
mining site.
It creates deep pits that occupy
land that would be used for other
developments.
It promotes unsustainable
development when mines are shut
down. Miners lose employment.
It causes soil erosion as large
lumps of rocks are removed.
Uranium
It is one of the most abundant minerals on
the Earth’s surface. Uranium is found in
hard rocks or sandstone.
Types of Uranium Ore Deposits
a. Unconformity deposits
Mineral deposits lie between two rock
stratas of different ages.
b. Paleoplacer deposits
It was formed by deposited sediments
which were compacted and lithified like
solid sedimentary rocks. Deep or shaft
mining is used to extract the mineral.
c. Sandstone-type Deposit
It is formed when oxidized groundwater
that has leached uranium from surface
rocks flows down into aquifers where it
is reduced to precipitate the primary ore
mineral of uranium called uraninite. It
is abundantly found in the sedimentary
rocks. Mining is easier and cheaper
since it is found near the Earth’s
surface.
Characteristics of Uranium
It is radioactive
It is malleable
It is silvery white
It is found inside ores
It is one of the heaviest minerals.
The Occurrence of Uranium
Uranium occurs in black uranium oxide
called pitchblende which is hydrothermal
vein of sedimentary rocks. Groundwater
easily transports highly soluble uranium
called oxidized uranium.
Uranium is reduced and made relatively
insoluble when it precipitates together with
organic matter
.
Mining of Uranium in Malawi
There are four Australian companies that
own Malawi’s uranium mines such as:
a. Paladin (Kayerekera, Chilumba and
Chilongo)
b. Red Rock (Livingstonia, Nyika and
Chintheche)
c. Globe Uranium (Simulemba)
d. Africa Energy Resources (Majete and
Lisungwe at Kirk Range)
Kayerekera is where abundant uranium is
extracted by Paladin.
Uranium Mining at Kayerekera
Kayerekera is located 52 kilometers west of
Karonga town in the northern region of
Malawi.
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The uranium mine was first opened and run
by Central Electricity Generating Board of
Great Britain (CEGD). Thereafter, Paladin
Africa Ltd took over the project after it was
abandoned by the CEGD. Paladin Africa
Ltd has 85% shares and Malawi
Government holds the remaining 15%.
Methods of Uranium Mining
The mining methods of uranium are
a. Open pit mining
It is cheap but it releases large amounts
of dust that cause breathing problem.
b. Underground mining
It is expensive and workers are exposed
to hazardous gases to their health.
c. In-situ leaching (ISL)
It is done when minerals are in chemical
solution which is pumped to the Earth’s
surface.
Importance of uranium mining in Malawi
It provides employment
It provides government revenue.
It is source of foreign earnings
It provides raw materials
It promotes infrastructural development
Challenges faced in the uranium mining
in Malawi
Industrial strikes by workers who
demand for salary increase
Shortages of working materials such as
dust masks.
Low price of uranium at the
international markets.
Land slippage of uranium that
negatively affects plant growth.
Processing of Uranium
The following are the steps taken in the
processing of uranium:
a. Milling and refining
The uranium ore is crushed and then
treated with acid solution which
percolates through the ore. In in-situ
mining, uranium is already in solution
which drains from the rocks and
collected.
b. Precipitation and drying
A chemical solvent is added to uranium
solution to turn it into a solid material
which is dried as a yellowcake (uranium
oxide concentrate. A yellowcake is
packed in steel drums and transported to
enrichment facility for further
processing.
c. Conversion
The chemical process turns a yellowcake
into a hexafluoride which then heated to
become gas and loaded into cylinders.
d. Enrichment
Uranium is made usable as fuel when
lighter U-235 atoms are separated from
heavier U-238 atoms in order to
concentrate the U-235 atoms. Gas
condenses into slid when it is cooled.
e. Fabrication
A fuel fabricator converts uranium
dioxide powder and presses the powder
into fuel pellet. Pellets are packed into
tubes which are used to release heat in
nuclear reactor vessels.
Uses of Uranium
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It is used to make x-ray machines and
other devices for scanning a detecting
diseases in hospitals
It is used to generate nuclear energy.
It is used as a colourant in pottery and
glass manufacturing industries.
It is used to determine the age of rock,
the Earth and other historical events. In
other way, it is used for atomic dating.
It is used for making phosphate
fertilizer.
Countries where uranium from Malawi is
exported
Russia
Japan
Canada
France
The possible impact of uranium on the
environment
Serious health risks due to exposure to
radiation and inhalation of radon gas
which very lethal.
Water depletion in the surrounding
environment since the processing
requires large volumes of water.
Contamination of water and soil which
affects ecological balance.
The cost-benefit analysis of uranium
mining in Malawi
a. Benefits
It provides employment to miners.
Minerals are raw materials.
It gives the country foreign earnings.
It is source of government’s revenue
through taxes.
It promotes infrastructural
development. Better roads and power
lines are constructed to rural areas
where mines are located.
It encourages the development of
industries, e.g. nuclear energy
industry.
b. Costs
Uranium wastes contaminate water
resources.
Nuclear suspended elements and
toxic substances pollute air.
Uranium wastes have negative
effects on human health.
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TOPIC 7 PETROLEUM IN THE WORLD
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the term petroleum
2. Locate places where petroleum is found in the world
3. Explain the formation of petroleum
4. Describe the occurrence of petroleum
5. Explain how petroleum is extracted
6. Explain how petroleum is transported
7. Describe how petroleum is refined
8. Identify petroleum products and their uses
9. Explain the roles of OPEC
10. Explain the environmental impact of oil drilling, refining and transportation
Petroleum is the mixture of hydrogen and
carbon or hydrocarbons.
Formation of Petroleum
t is formed as a result of the action of
bacteria on dead bodies of minute marine
creatures buried at the bottom of the seas,
swamps or lagoons.
Later, the earth`s movements squeezed the
oil and gas from the source rock called
shale into the reservoir rocks of sandstone
and limestone.
Necessary Conditions for Oil to Form
Pressure
Heat
Passage of time
Exclusion of air
Oil Drilling and Extraction
A metal structure called derrick is used for
drilling a hole into the ground. The end of a
derrick is fitted with a cutter or bit. When
drilling, but is forced down as a lubricant of
a cutter and pieces of rocks are flushed out.
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When oil is reached, it comes out in two
ways as follows:
It gushes out if it is under natural
pressure
It is pumped if it is not under natural
pressure
Oil Refining
Oil refining is the process of turning crude
oil into the usable form. Crude oil is oil in
its natural state or unrefined oil.
Stages in Oil Refining
Distillation or Fractionating
Cracking
Purification
Primary Distillation
This is the process of breaking down of
crude oil into various hydrocarbons or
fractions. In this process, crude oil is
vaporized and vapour is allowed to condense
at various levels of a tall tower called a
fractionating column.
Vapour condenses into liquids or
hydrocarbons which are collected for use.
Properties of fractionating column at the
top
Low boiling point
Burn with clear flame
Light coloured
More runny
Are smaller molecules
Properties of fractionating column at the
bottom
Have high boiling point
Have longer carbon chains
Are thicker
Less likely to burn
Are larger molecules
Cracking
This is also known as secondary
distillation. This refers to the breakdown of
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heavier fractions into the lighter fractions
by reheating. In the process, a cat-cracker is
used. For instance, gasoline is reheated to
produce benzene. This is due to the
increased demand for lighter oils. Thermal,
catalytic and steam cracking involve
reheating of oil to come up with lighter oils.
On the other hand, hydrocracking involves
diluting heavy oils to produce lighter oil.
Purification
This is the process of removing impurities
from oil, such as sulphur compounds.
Location of Oil Refineries
At the port near the oil producing
region, e.g. Abadan in the Middle East
At the entry port of oil consuming
countries
Transportation of Oil
a. Pipelines: they are used to transport oil
from the producing region to consuming
region over long distances.
Advantages of pipelines
It is cheapest way of transporting
liquid and gaseous commodities
It is cheap to use
It safe and environment friendly.
It is cheap to use.
It uses less energy
Disadvantages of pipelines
They are expensive to construct,
maintain and patrol.
Fire accidents may occur if pipes
leak.
Pipelines are inflexible once they are
laid down
b. Oil tankers are used to transport crude
oil over the sea from oil producing
countries to refineries. The goodness is
that a tanker carries large quantities of
oil over long distances at once. The
disadvantages are that tankers are
expensive to build a ship and construct
ports, it is very slow, and it pollutes
water due to leaking tankers.
c. Rail tankers, road tankers are used to
distribute oil to consumers or filling
stations.
d. Aircrafts are used by the military bases.
Oil Products and their Uses
Natural gas (methane) is used for heating
and burning
Making chemicals from butane, ethane
and propane
Gasoline is used for driving land
transport
Kerosene is used by jets
Gas oil which is made into diesel is used
by lorries, buses and other locomotives
Bitumen is used for making tarmac.
Bitumen is the end by-product of
primary distillation
Other uses of oil products are for making
drugs, plastics, car antifreeze, adhesives
and chemicals.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC)
The following are the roles of OPEC:
It is responsible for regulating supply of
petroleum to non-member states by
assigning quota to member countries.
It regulates prices of oil products at the
world markets
It coordinates and unify the petroleum
policies of the member states.
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Member Countries of OPEC
They are Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon,
Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,
Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates and Venezuela.
Reasons for Oil Nigeria’s Oil Crisis
Low oil refinery capacities. Most of
crude oil is exported to other foreign
refineries.
Low oil productivity in relation to
increased demand for refined oil.
Conflicts and frequent attacks of oil
infrastructure.
Theft and vandalism of oil pipes and
other infrastructures.
Possible environmental impact of oil
drilling, refinery and transportation
Pollution
Oil drilling pollutes water.
Oil spills from leaking oil tankers pollute
water. It also caused by the leaking
pipelines. This causes death of marine
animals.
Climate change is caused the burning of
oils that release carbon dioxide into the
air and cause global warming.
Acid rain petroleum products release a
lot of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides that when they combine with
water vapour they forms acid rain.
Fires and explosions as petroleum
products are highly flammable. This
destroys environment and causes huge
fires in cities.
Chronic occupational hazards as
workers are exposed to heat, polluted air,
noise and other dangerous explosives
which may cause injuries and death.
Land degradation by leaking pipelines
that release large oil spills on land.
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TOPIC 8 ENERGY
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the meaning of the term energy
2. Identify types of energy
3. Explain how energy is produced from the sun, wind and water
4. Describe advantages and disadvantages of different types of energy
5. Explain the importance of energy
6. Explain the environmental impact of various sources of energy
7. State the energy crisis in Malawi
Types of Natural Resources
Natural resources are things which were
provided by nature.
Renewable Resources
These are resources which can be replaced
or replenished. They can be recycled. They
include vegetation, animals, air and soil.
Non-renewable Resources
These are resources which cannot be
replaced or recycled. They are completely
used up. For example, there are minerals,
petroleum and natural gas.
Natural Resources which are Source of
Energy
Energy
Produced
Solar energy
Hydro-electricity
Thermal energy
Wind energy
Geo-thermal
energy
Biogas energy
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Alternative Energy
This is energy that cannot be depleted when
used. It can be recycled. It is also called
renewable energy. Examples of alternative
energy are hydro-electricity, geo-thermal
energy. Wind energy, solar energy and
biogas. Thermal energy is not alternative
energy.
Types of Energy
Hydro Electricity
It is produced when water from a good height moves with great force through the penstocks and
turns the turbine. The turbine in turn causes generator to produce electricity.
Factors Necessary for the Generation of
Hydro electricity
c. Sufficient and constant water supply
from rainfall or melting ice on hill
slopes.
b. Availability of heavy capital outlay.
c. Availability of rapids or waterfalls.
d. Large domestic and industrial markets
where electricity is used such as,
industries.
Advantages of Hydro electricity
It is very efficient.
It is renewable.
It can be transmitted over long distances
without losing power.
It is reliable since water is readily
available.
It does not pollute air.
Power dams serve many purposes such
as irrigation and fishing.
It is relatively cheap to produce.
There is unlimited degree of divisibility.
It can be used in small to large devices
or appliances.
Disadvantages of Hydro electricity
River damming deprives farmers of their
land for farming and settlement.
Construction of dams destroys the
environment.
Constructing and maintaining dams are
expensive.
The dams become the breeding ground
for disease causing organisms.
Building up of silt in the dam deprives
the flood plain downstream of soil
nutrients.
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Rural inhabitants do not see any
importance of using electricity.
Solar Energy
Sun is the source of solar energy.
Solar panels capture the sun`s heat and
convert it into electricity direct to solar cells
or power banks where unused electricity is
stored and be used later. Inside solar panels,
there are photovoltaic cells that convert solar
energy into electricity.
Advantages of Solar energy
It is renewable as sunshine is always
available.
It is good for small-scale energy needs.
There is unlimited supply of sun`s
energy.
It is cheap to generate and use since
sun’s energy is free of charge.
It does not cause pollution of any form.
Advantages of Solar Energy
Less electricity is produced during dense
and extensive cloud cover
Solar panels and solar cells are
expensive
It is very inefficient since a smallest
percentage (only 30%) of sun`s heat is
turned into electricity
Wind Energy
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As wind is blowing, it turns the wind mills
that make the turbines rotate. Then turbines
cause generators to produce electricity. The
blades are connected to a long shaft that
turns a turbine. Several wind mills are
constructed in an identified piece of land
which is known as a wind farm.
Advantages of Wind Energy
It is renewable as wind is always
available.
There are low operation costs.
It is cheap to generate and use.
It can be used even in remote rural areas
It does not cause water and air pollution.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy
Wind mills cause visual and noise
pollution.
Wind mills are expensive.
Large number of wind mills and turbines
are required.
There is erratic supply of electricity
when wind speed is not constant.
Nuclear Energy
Uranium is the main raw material for the
production of nuclear energy. Uranium rods
are put in the reactor vessel where
radioactive changes occur and release large
amount of heat. Heat energy heats and
vaporizes water in a steam generator.
Steam is directed to a turbine which is
connected to a generator. Steam turns a
turbine to make generator produce
electricity.
Advantage of Nuclear Energy
Generation requires limited raw materials.
It is very efficient as it produces large
amounts of energy from small amounts
of fuel.
It causes little air pollution.
Risks of accidents are reduced due to
many safeguards.
Electricity can be transmitted over long
distances.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
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Nuclear wastes are very dangerous as
they are radioactive in nature.
Nuclear accidents cause environmental
hazards. It requires large capital to
install power plants.
Radioactive nuclear wastes are very
dangerous to people and the whole
environment.
It is a source of fatal accidents.
Many healthy problems to people who
live near the nuclear power stations
shutting down old power plants is very
costly
Geo Thermal Energy
It is produced at the volcanic sites, more
especially at the hot springs, geysers and
fumaroles. Steam is harnessed and directed
to a turbine. Turbine turns and causes
generator to produce electricity.
Sometimes, wells are drilled in order to
reach hot rocks; any surface water is forced
back into the reservoir to be reheated and
produce steam.
Advantages of Geo-thermal Energy
It is renewable.
It does not cause air pollution.
It is reliable.
Disadvantages of Geo - thermal Energy
It is expensive to install.
There are limited sites.
It is expensive to construct and maintain
the power plants.
It can bring toxic substances onto the
Earth’s surface that may destroy the
environment
Biogas Energy
Biogas is energy generated from dead and
decomposed plant and animal matter. Such
materials are called biomass which includes
animal dung, dead wood, saw-dust, dead
leaves, crop residues and garbage. Cattle
dung is the best biomass as it produces a lot
of methane.
Two ways of making biogas
a. Burning
b. Landfill
Burning Method
The biomass materials are placed in a
furnace where they are heated and vaporize
water in a boiler. Water produces vapor
which is directed to a turbine that turns and
cause generator to produce electricity.
Landfill Method
Dung is mixed with water and put in the
digester buried into the ground and is
properly secured.
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Micro-organisms act on the dung and
produce biogas which is used for heating,
cooking and lighting.
Advantages of Biogas
It is very cheap to buy the equipment.
Raw materials are readily available in
the local environment.
Disadvantages of Biogas
Farmers are deprived of cheap source of
fertilizer.
It helps to reduce the amount of wastes
from the environment.
It can be difficult to collect sufficient
quantities of wastes.
If not handled properly, it can spread
disease
Importance of Energy in the Country
It is used for driving vehicles and other
locomotives
It helps for keeping houses warm
It is used for processing and preserving
food
It used for manufacturing goods in the
industries
Environmental impact of various sources
of energy
Burning of fossil fuels produces
greenhouse gases that cause global
warming and depletion of ozone layer.
Production of biogas releases methane
which pollutes air and cause global
warming.
Construction hydroelectric plants and
generation of electricity destroy
environment.
Oil drilling has adverse effects on
marine ecosystem.
Energy crisis in Malawi
This is the situation created by shortage or
scarcity of energy resources due to increased
demand. Fossil fuels are in insufficient
supplies to support the growing population
in the world. As a result, there are a lot of
problems caused by shortage of fossil fuels
such as:
Rampant cutting down of trees for fuel
trees and charcoal burning
Rising costs of fossil fuels
Dwindling of oil reserves which are
never replaced
Causes of energy crisis in Malawi
Wastage of energy resources
Dependence on old and poor electric
power plants or poor infrastructural
development on hydroelectric
generation.
Unexploited energy options. This means
that there are many energy resources
such as wind that are left unused to ease
the problem of electricity in Malawi.
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Rapid population growth that puts
pressure on limited energy resources.
Overconsumption of energy due to rapid
population growth and increase in
technologies that pose great demand on
energy resources.
TOPIC 9 WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1 Identify areas of low, medium and high population densities on a world map
2 Account for world population distribution
3 Explain world population distribution
4 Calculate population densities for selected countries
World Population Distribution and Density
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Factors that affect world population
distribution
a. Soil
Areas with fertile soils are more densely
populated than those with poor soils.
b. Relief or topography
Flat and gently sloping areas are more
densely populated than mountainous
areas and valleys.
c. Climate
Very cold and dry lands (deserts) are
more sparsely populated than areas that
have good climate. Good areas receive
rainfall that promotes various industrial
activities.
d. Level of economic activities
Areas that have more economic
activities (such as trading centres,
mining towns, cities) have very high
population densities as compared to very
remote rural areas.
e. Natural resources
Areas with rich resources like minerals
and fertile soil are densely populated
rather than areas with poor resource
deposits.
f. Transport and communication
High population densities are
concentrated near or along the transport
links.
g. Water supply
Large populations are concentrated
around water point. Where water is a
problem you cannot find many people as
it is essential for human activities.
h. Political stability
Countries which are peaceful attract
many people to settle there. Wars make
people to abandon their homes.
i. Natural hazards
Disaster prone areas (like floods and
earthquakes) have little or no population.
j. Government policies
Government may evacuate people from
some areas due to a number of reasons,
such as folds. It can also resettle people
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in some areas in order to reduce pressure
on natural resources.
Factors for High Population
South East Asia
China has largest population (750
million people) in the world. Other
countries in this region are India (540
million), Pakistan (112 million) and
Bangladesh (105 million)
Fertile alluvial soils along the Ganges,
Indus and Yangtse Kiang Valleys.
Peasant farming that depends on family
members for cheap source of labour.
This necessitates large families.
Early trading activities
Early settlement
Western Europe
There is very large concentration of
populations in the region due to the
following factors:
Early trade
Trade route and focus
Industrial development
Communication centre
North East America
The following are the factors that encourage
large populations:
Industrial development
It is worldwide centre of commerce
Good agricultural land
There is good future and development
Witwatersrand Region in South Africa
Mining
Industrial development
Commerce
Better living standards
Coastal Regions of West Africa
In this region Nigeria is largest populated
country in Africa with the population of 120
million people. Some of the reasons for
highest populations in the region are:
Improved living conditions
Fertile soil for farming
Water and transport
Contact with early traders
Factors for Low Populations Hot Deserts
Harsh climate which is very hot and dry
Poor soil
Difficult transport due to sand dune
No contacts with outside world
Equatorial Forests
Poor soil drainage
Difficult transport due to very thick
forest and slippery roads
Dangerous animals and diseases that
attack people
Tundra Region
Very short crop growing season
Extremely cold climate where soil is
permanently frozen.
Difficult transport because land and
water are permanently frozen
Population density
This is the total number of people living in a
square kilometer.
Factors for Low Population Density
Extreme climate
Rugged and hilly landscape
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Extreme remoteness (areas are hardly
reachable)
Infertile soil
Factors for High Population Density
Moderate climate for settlement and
farming
Fertile farm land
Low land with gentle slopes and fertile
soil
Good water supply for drinking and
irrigation
Wealthier areas in terms of industries
that offer more jobs
Poverty in developing nations tends to
encourage large family sizes.
Calculating population density
The following is the formula for calculating
population density
Population density =


Population density for country A
=


=


= 43 people per km
2
You can now use the formula to calculate
population density for remaining countries.
Advantages of high population densities
It provides a ready market for various
goods
There is abundant work force
Ii promotes a great interaction of
people which helps in the sharing of
knowledge, skills and ideas vital to
develop the area
There is greater competition amongst
people which aids development
Disadvantages of high population
densities
Shortage of food
Shortage of land for crop cultivation
More social problems, e.g. fighting for
limited resources
Poor living standards or poverty
Difficult to provide basic necessities
Pressure on forest resources which
leads to deforestation, e.g. charcoal
Shortage of social services, such as
drugs and teaching/learning resources
(social environment)
Land degradation due to continuous
cultivation of land.
It leads to cultivation along the river
banks which results to siltation.
Advantages of low population densities
The land produces enough food for the
inhabitants
Land is readily available for maximum
use
It is not easy for disease outbreak to
spread easily.
It is quiet; there are low noise levels
There is enough space for everyone
which creates enough room for one’s
privacy and freedom.
There are no social problems such as
fighting, quarreling, prostitution and
theft.
Countr
y
Population
Area
(km
2
)
Ppl density
(ppl/km
2
)
A
26 738
629
B
7 452 234
17648
C
5 762 721
53424
D
6 534 217
12335
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Disadvantages of low population
densities
There is lack infrastructure and
services.
People over long distances looking for
social services
It leads to boredom due lack of
entertainment and social services.
Shortage of labour supply
There is no exchange of ideas due to
lack of social interaction.
Retarded development due to slow
diffusion of innovations and ideas.
REVISION NOTES (Form 1)
Migration
This refers to the movement of people
from one area to another. Migration is
categorized into immigration and
emigration.
Immigration is the movement of people
into the country while emigration is the
movement of people out of the country.
The area where people are coming from
is called a donor area while the area
where they are migrating to is known as
destination or recipient areas.
Immigrants are people who enter the
country while emigrants are people who
leave the country.
Factors that Cause Migration
There are political, social and economic
factors that cause people to migrate. These
factors are put into two groups like push and
pull factors.
Push factors are those factors that drive
people away from the area. On the other
hand, pull factors attract people to settle in
the new areas.
Effects of Migration on
i. Donor Areas
Neglected homes
Empty schools
Retarded development
Poor road conditions
ii. Recipient Areas
Rapid population growth
Shortage of social services
Overcrowding in schools, public
transport and hospitals
More social problems like high
crime rate
Shortage of land for farming
Factors
Pull Factors in Recipient
Areas
Social and
Political
Factors
Entertainment
City life
Political stability
Political freedom
Economic
Factors
Job opportunities
Improved social
services
Physical
Factors
Favourable climate
Good soil
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Population change
This is the difference between the size of the
population at the end and beginning of a
period of any given society or country. This
can be in terms of increase or decrease in
population.
Factors that Influence Population Change
1. Birth rate
Birth rate refers to average number
of babies born in every place for
every 1000 people during a
particular period of time.
Birth rate =


High birth rate leads to rapid
population growth.
2. Death rate: it refers to number of deaths
per 1000 who die in a particular area
during a particular period of time.
Death rate =


3. Migration: it leads to population growth
in the recipient area whereas emigration
depopulates donor area.
Population growth rate
This is the rate at which population of a
country grows. There are different types of
population growth rate that include:
i. Rapid growth rate
This is a situation where rapid growth
of population is experienced due to
higher birth rate than death rate.
ii. Slow growth rate
This is a nearly stagnant population
growth experienced where both birth
and death rates are low. E.g. in
developed countries like Britain and
Germany.
iii. Zero growth rate
This is a stable population growth rate
where both birth and death rates are
almost equal. It is also known as
constant growth rate or stationary
growth rate. In this case, population
growth rate is therefore zero.
iv. Negative growth rate
This is a situation where death rate
surpasses birth rate. In other words,
death rate is lower than death rate. As a
result, there is e declining population.
Birth rate
It is the number of live births per year,
taking 1000 persons. This is termed as
the crude birth rate because puts
Factors
Push factors in Donor
Areas
Social and
Political
Factors
Conflicts
Witchcraft
Wars
Insecurity
Disputes
Economic
Factors
Poverty
Unemployment
Physical
Factors
Natural disasters like
floods
Poor soil and climate
Epidemics
Shortage of land for
farming and
settlement
Demographic
Factors
High population
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together all people who are not capable
of giving birth (like men, women, young
girls and old women) with those who are
in a position of to give birth (such as
mature, married and unmarried women).
In short, crude birth rate refers to the
total number of people who are not
capable to give birth and those in a
position to give birth.
CBR=


X 1000
Death rate or mortality rate
This refers to the number of deaths per
1000 persons. This is known as a crude
death rate (CDR) because it does not
consider the age and sex composition of
the population of the population at risk.
CDR =


X 1000
Reasons for High Death rates in
Developing Countries
Dirty and unreliable water supplies
Poor housing conditions
Poor access to medical services
Epidemic diseases in some areas
Diets that are short in calories and/or
protein
Reasons for Low Death Rates in
Developed Countries (USA, Germany and
UK)
Good housing conditions
Safe water supplies
More than enough food to eat
Advanced medical services.
Natural increase
This is the difference between the
number of births and number of deaths.
This happens when birth rate exceeds
death rate. Malawi`s natural increase
is30% per year for every 1000 people.
Natural increase = birth rate death rate
Natural increase is caused by:
i. High birth rates
ii. Low death rates
iii. Influx of people into the country
Natural decrease
This is a condition that occurs when
death rate exceeds birth rate. This leads
to low population. Natural decrease is
caused by:
Epidemics such as Ebola and HIV/AIDS
i. Natural hazards such as flooding
ii. Severe drought
iii. Pests and diseases that destroy
crops.
iv. Civil wars in a country.
Infant mortality rate (IMR)
This is the number of children who day
per year at the age of below 1 year per
1000 persons in the population.
IMR =


X 1000
Factors for High Infant Mortality Rate
(IMR)
Shortage of medical services
Greater number of children born to
mothers
Poor nutrition to mothers and babies
Less knowledge of health matters
Dirty water supply
Gender inequalities and abuse of power
Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
This is the number of mothers who die
during pregnancy or delivery.
MMR =


X 1000
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Factors for Maternal Mortality Rate
Early marriages and teenage
pregnancies
Inadequate health facilities and services
Gender inequalities
Greater number of children born to
mothers
Less knowledge of health matters
Poor nutrition to mothers
Life expectancy
This refers to the average number of
years that a person can expect to live.
Life expectancy is calculated at birth of
a child.
Life expectancy is higher in women than
that of men.
There is also higher life expectancy in
developed countries (like Japan and UK)
than in developing countries such as
Malawi. For example, in Malawi life
expectancy is at 34 years while in Japan
is at 85 years for women and 80 years
for men.
Reasons for Low Life Expectancy
Poor nutrition
Poor hygiene
epidemics
Poor sanitation
Poor medical care
Reasons for Low Life Expectancy
High living standards
High medical care
Increased use of vaccines
High nutritional levels
Improved hygiene and sanitation
Population explosion
Population explosion refers to the sudden
rapid population growth in an area which is
as a result of a marked decrease in death rate
and an increase in birth rate.
Causes of Population Explosion
High fertility rate
Reduced mortality rate
Influx of refugees into the country
Ways of Avoiding Population Explosion
Making laws that limit the number of
children per couple. E.g. in China the
state controls marriages and prevents
early marriages by imposing penalties on
the offenders
Convincing the population to accept
family planning methods. E.g. men in
India are encouraged to undergo
vasectomy.
Making laws that stop re marriages
after divorce
Government should control under age
marriages and single motherhood.
Instituting laws that prohibit high
fertility rate
Encouraging the use of contraceptives
among the population and increase their
accessibility
Encouraging education of girls
Population density
This is the total number of people living in a
square kilometer.
Population density =


Overpopulation
It is the state of imbalance where there is an
excessively high population in relation to
potential resources in an area at a given
time.
Causes of Overpopulation
Natural increase in population
Decline in resources
A decline in the demand for labour
Under population
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It is the condition where the country`s
population is too small to develop its
resources effectively enough in order to
improve the living standards. The
government is able to cut expenditures on
education, health and other services thereby
making savings for other development
projects
TOPIC 10 POPULATION DYNAMICS
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the structure of a given population
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2. Compare and contrast the population structures of developed and developing countries
3. Describe the implications of various population structures on development
4. Explain the meaning of the term dependency ratio
5. Describe the demographic transition model
6. Explain the causes of rapid population growth
7. Explain the effects of rapid population growth on development
8. Suggest strategies for controlling population growth
9. Explain the benefit of controlling population growth
Population Structure
Population structure is the composition of
the population based on age and sex.
Population structure is represented by the
population pyramid.
Youthful Population Structure
It shows the population that mostly
composed of children. It has the following
characteristics:
There are more children than adults
It has wide base and narrow top
It represents the developing countries
like Malawi, Ethiopia, Kenya, DRC and
Zambia.
There is rapid population growth
Reasons for Youthful Population
Structure
Low levels of education of women
Low levels of employment of women
Lack of family planning services
Peasant farming that encourages having
many children as cheap source of
labour
Lack of social security system that
force families to have many children to
support them at their old age.
High mortality rate that encourages
bearing more children hoping that some
may survive.
Implications of Youthful Population
Structure
Increased demand on natural resources
leading to environmental degradation.
Shortage of social services
Shortage of housing
Lack of job opportunities
Shortage of food that causes
malnutrition and ill-health
Low levels of living and absolute
poverty
Ageing Population Structure
This is the one that mostly composed of
adults. Below are the characteristics:
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More adults than youths
More women than men
It describes population of developed
countries such UK, Sweden, USA and
Canada.
Causes of Ageing Population Structure
High levels of education and
employment for women
High life expectancy or low mortality
rates
Availability and use of family planning
services
Presence of old age social security
systems
Prohibition of child labour by law
Implications of ageing population
More money is needed to support the
ageing population in terms of pension
scheme and health care services
There are fewer workers left to fill the
gaps left by adults
Rising taxes for the fewer workers in
order to support the elderly people.
Improved education and health care
services to children in the population
that can easily attain higher education
and later enter into the work force.
Dependency ratio
Dependency ratio is the percentage of
people in the non economically active age
group to that economically active age group.
Or it refers to the percentage of children
under the age of 16 years and elders who are
above the age of 65 who depend on the
economically active people. More adults of
up to the age of above 65 and children up to
the age of 14 years create this dependency
ratio.
Dependency ratio =

󰇛

󰇜
󰇛
󰇛
X 100
Example
Calculate dependency ration if in a country
there are 13 435 221 under-16 children, 34
729 121 economically active people and 964
182 elders.
Dependency ratio =


X 100
= 41.46
Therefore, dependency ratio is 41%
Demographic transition model
It is a figure that describes the world’s
population trends in terms of birth and death
rates. It shows how the world’s population
grows. It is divided into stages A to D. Each
stage describes how population grows
corresponding to birth and death rates.
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Stage I or High Stationary Stage
In this stage both birth rate and death
rate are high due to the following
factors:
Lack of family planning
Dependence on child labour
Better living standards with poor
education and medical services.
Primitive thinking on uncontrolled
number of children per couple.
Population growth is slow
Stage II or Early Expansion Stage
Death rate falls and birth rate remains
high due to improvements in medicine,
sanitation and hygiene because of the
following reasons:
Improved hygiene
Improvement in medical care
Better sanitation services
Population grows rapidly. Countries
depend on agriculture or depend on
agrarian economy such as Malawi,
Stage III or Late Expansion Stage
Death rate continues to fall and birth
rate falls due to:
Access to health care
Improved diet
Industrial development has also
accelerated high populations in cities
and towns.
Population growth has started to
decline. Countries in this stage are
Egypt, Tunisia, Zimbabwe, South
Africa, Costa Rica, Mexico and Turkey.
Stage IV or Low Stationary Stage
Both death rate and birth rate are almost
the same.
Population growth levels off. All this is
due to high living standards. A decline
in both death and death rate is called a
complete demographic transition. In
this Sweden.
Causes of rapid population growth
Effects of rapid population growth on
development
Increased demand on natural resources
leading to environmental degradation.
Shortage of social services
Shortage of housing
Lack of job opportunities
Shortage of food that causes
malnutrition and ill-health
Low levels of living and absolute
poverty
Strategies for controlling population
growth some countries in the world
Introduction and use of family planning
programmes.
Establishment of economic incentives
and disincentives on a number of
children per couple.
Use of civic education programmes
through mass media, curriculum and
public rallies.
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Formulating, implementing and
enforcing population policies.
Improving women’s involvement in
some development programmes.
Legislating and enforcing child labour
laws
World’s population policies
a. India
Family planning services
Use of contraceptives and
sterilization when contraceptives
fail
Financial incentives are given to for
voluntary sterilization
Use of force to those who do not
voluntarily sterilize
b. Taiwan
Family planning campaigns
Subsidizing smaller families
c. Great Britain
Family planning campaigns
Setting marriageable for girls by law
Provision of old age social security
system
d. Israel
Family planning campaign
e. Egypt
Government backed family planning
schemes. However, some religions
discourage people from following
family planning methods.
f. China
a. Family planning campaigns
b. Encouraging late marriage
c. Legally 2-3 children are allowed per
couple
d. Contraceptives, sterilization and abortion
g. Nigeria
Family planning campaigns
Use of contraceptives
Government encourages smaller
families
4-children per couple policy
h. Malawi
Discouraging child labour by law
Encouraging education for a girl-child
Family planning campaigns
Institutions that help to control
population growth in Malawi
Banja La Mtsogolo
Non-governmental organization
(NGOs) such as Population Services
International (PSI) and Print and
Electronic Media (e.g. newspaper and
TVs spread family planning messages).
Benefit of controlling population growth
It reduces pressure on social services
It reduces pressure on natural resources
It reduces unemployment and its related
problems
It ensures adequate resources in the
family, community and nation.
It ensures quality services
It helps to improve living standards of
people in the country.
It reduces the rate of crime cases in the
country.
TOPIC 11 SETTLEMENTS
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Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the meaning of the term settlement
2. Identify types of settlement
3. Discussing different types of settlement pattern
4. Examining different settlement patterns
5. Explain factors that influence settlement patterns
Settlement refers to a place where people
live and have built homes
Elements of Settlement
The following are the factors that encourage
the location of industries.
People
What the people do (occupation)
Buildings and their functions
Transport links
Important Terms in Settlement
Site: it is the actual piece of land on which
settlement is situated e. g. relief features.
Situation: It is relationship of settlement
with the immediate surroundings. It is also
called location.
Pattern: this refers to the situation of
buildings in relation to each other
Shape or internal structure of settlement:
this is the appearance of individual
settlement.
Factors that Influence Settlement Site
Availability of arable land, fuel, drinking
water and building materials.
Wet point is the type of settlement
which is attracted by the presence of
water. On the other hand, dry point is
the settlement built in upland away from
flood- prone areas.
Flat land
Climatic conditions
Availability of resources
Transport links
Defensive reasons
Types of Settlement
There are two main types of settlement
namely:
a. Rural Settlement
b. Urban Settlement
Rural Settlement
Rural settlement has the following
characteristics:
It is unifunctional (one main function
such as farming).
It is made up of homogeneous
population (one ethnic group).
There are permanent settlements with
strong social relations.
They are dominated by illiterate
inhabitants.
Population is smaller than in urban
settlement
It is concerned with primary activities,
such as farming, fishing, and mining.
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The population is traditional since there
is homogeneous population.
Very low land values
Dependence on communal land
Rural settlement is classified into groups
as illustrated in the following table.
Abundance of semi-permanent buildings
Type of rural
settlement
Description
Farmstead
Few main buildings
and the surrounding
piece of land without
shops and other
social services
Hamlet
A grouping of
farmsteads
Village
Denser grouping of
farmsteads with
small shops, school,
post office and other
minor social services
Urban Settlement
Urban settlement is classified into a town,
city, metropolis, conurbation and
megalopolis.
Types of
urban
settlement
Description
Town
It is a densely populated
urban settlement
City
It is a large town where
people work and live.
Capital City
It is administrative centre
and houses national
government.
(Primate City)
Metropolis
It is a main city of a region
together with satellite towns
which form metropolitan
system. The satellite towns
depend on the metropolis for
some specialized services.
Conurbation
It is a large urban settlement
formed by the merging or
joining of individual towns
and cities. E.g.
Witwatersrand
Megalopolis
It is a very gigantic urban
settlement formed by the
merging of several
conurbations and super-
cities.
Characteristics of urban settlement
There is high population density.
It is multifunctional, meaning that there
are diversified economic activities.
It is dominated by literate people.
It is composed by heterogeneous
populations. There are varied of different
cultural background.
There is high mobility
Land values are very high
There are permanent buildings
Population is heterogeneous (existence
with multiculturalism).
Functions of settlements
Residential
Administrative
Service delivery
Industrial functions
Commercial or trading functions
Recreational functions
Difference between rural and urban
settlements
Rural settlement
Urban settlement
Dominated by poor
Dominated by rich
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and illiterate people.
and literate people
It is unifunctional, e.g.
agriculture only
It is multifunctional,
serves many
functions.
Poor transport and
communication
Good transport and
communication
services
Low levels of
technology
High levels of
technology
Low population
density
High population
density
Functional relationship between rural
and urban settlements
Rural areas are source of food and raw
materials for urban dwellers. On the other
hand, towns provide rural areas with
processed food and important social
services.
Types of Settlement Patterns
a. Nucleated Settlement Pattern
The buildings are constructed in clusters
or groups.
Factors that Influence Nuclear Pattern
- Where water is a problem and houses are
clustered around a water point.
- Estate farming that leaves more land for
crop cultivation.
- Need for defence or security
- Presence of large flat land and fertile soil
- Presence of business activities
Advantages of Nuclear Settlement Pattern
- There is more social interaction between
the households.
- There is more competition that
accelerates development.
- It Is easy to provide social services
- Communication is not a problem
- There is more security.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Settlement
Pattern
- Disease outbreak spread very easily
from household to another household
- Overcrowding of houses leads to poor
sanitation.
- There is lack of privacy.
- There are more social and sanitation
problems due to high population density
and competition for resources.
b. Dispersed Settlement Pattern
The settlements are made in isolated
lands away from each other. They are
linked by paths.
It is influenced by a number of factors
that include:
- Physical barriers such as mountains
and water.
- Presence of water almost
everywhere
- The presence of hills or mountains
- Unproductive soil
- Private or communal land
ownership where each households
occupy large landholdings in
isolation.
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Advantages of Dispersed Settlement
Pattern
- Land is available and put to maximum
use
- Low noise levels
- Clean and quite environment
- There is privacy
- Difficult for diseases to spread between
households
Disadvantages of Dispersed Settlement
Pattern
- Loss of social interaction between the
households
- Communication is a problem
- Lack of security
- People travel long distances to get the
much needed services
- Sharing of innovative ideas is a
challenge that slows development.
c. Linear and Cross Settlement Pattern
Linear settlement is made following the
road or a stream except a railway line.
While cross settlement develops at the
road junction or river confluence.
Factors that promote these settlement
patterns are:
- Need to access social services by the
travelers
- Need for transport and
communication services
Advantages of Linear and Cross
Settlement Patterns
Transport and communication are not a
problem
There is presence of social services.
It promotes trading activities and good
trade links between communities.
Disadvantages of Linear and Star
Settlement Patterns
Car accidents affect many people along
the road.
High noise levels by the moving
vehicles.
Hierarchy of Settlements
This refers to the grouping of settlements
which are ranked based on size, shape and
services provided in each settlement.
Variables that influence the hierarchy of
settlements
- Population size
- Range and level of services
- Sphere of influence (distance that people
cover to access the services
Urban Zoning
This is also known as functional or land-
use structure. This is also known as
functional or land-use structure. It refers
to the arrangement of various urban
functions in relation to each other
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The Functional Structure of a City
The diagram below shows the urban land-
structure.
Characteristics of Central Business
District (CBD)
This is the heart of the city. CBD has the
following characteristics:
There are high-order land values like
administration, retail shops,
entertainment, hotels, financial
institutions, travel agents, cafes and
good restaurants.
Tall buildings
High land values
Highly accessible
Absence of residence and industries
High population during the day and
depopulated at night
Characteristics of Transitional Zone
There are commercial establishments
that require large floor space.
There are little residences
There are warehouses
There are poor types of shops and light
industries
There are more social problems
Low grade housing: squatters and
ghettoes are located there.
Problems of Transitional Zone
High rates of unemployment
High crime rates
Poor quality housing
Overcrowding
Squatter settlement is the one occupied by
poverty-stricken rural inhabitants, on the
outskirts who migrate to cities in search of
jobs and then settle in hastily built shanty
houses.
Ghetto is settlement occupied by minority
groups who are forced by economic
conditions to live segregated from the rest of
the population, under terrible slum
conditions. Both squatters and ghettoes are
built with temporary materials like plastics,
cartons, grasses and wood,
Industrial and Lower Class Housing
There are heavy industrial
establishments
There are narrow streets
There are generally high population
densities
There are relatively low land values
Problems of Industrial and Lower Class
Housing
Heavily polluted by noise from working
machines and cars, effluents and smoke
from industries
There is a lot of heavy traffic
Suburbs or commuter zone
This is the outskirt of the city
These are new residential areas
There are low noise levels and less
pollution
There are better houses and wider streets
Land value is low with expensive
housing
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Farms, airports, new residents, power
stations and golf courses are located
there
Problems of Suburb Zone
Long distance to reach the CBD
Expensive housing enclosed in tall
fences and hedges.
High costs of housing
Poor public transport
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TOPIC 12 URBANIZATION
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the meaning of the term urbanization
2. Describe the concentric zonal model
3. Explain factors that influence urbanization
4. Explain the effects of urbanization
5. Suggest solutions to challenges associated with urbanisation
6. Identify environmental risks associated with settlements
7. Explain ways of dealing with environmental risks associated with settlements
8. Describe factors for the growth of Lilongwe city
9. Explain the challenges of rapid urbanisation of Lilongwe city
10. Explain solutions to the challenges of rapid urbanisation of Lilongwe city
Urbanization is the process by which an
ever-increasing percentage of the total
population of a country is accommodated in
urban rather than rural area.
Urban growth refers to increase in the
number of people who live in urban areas.
Factors for Urbanization
a. Rural-urban migration
b. Natural growth or higher birth rate
Rural-urban Migration
It refers to the movement of people from
rural to urban areas for settlement.
Reasons for Rural-urban Migration
Factors that influence urbanization are
classified into push and pull factors. Push
factors are those that force to leave rural
areas for urban areas. On the other hand,
pull factors are those that attract people to
go to urban centres.
Factors
Rural
(push
factors)
Urban (pull
factors)
Social
&
cultural
factors
- Conflicts
- Witchcraft
- Insecurity
- Disputes
- Entertainment
- City life
- Right lights
- Education
- More financial
services
- Better health
care services
Econo
mic
factors
- Poverty
- Lack of
jobs
- Job
opportunities
- Improved
social
services
Physica
l
factors
- Floods
- Drought
- High
population
density
Demog
raphic
factors
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Problems Associated with Rural Urban
Migration
Rural
Urban
- Low economic
development
- Low food
production
- Insecurity
- More abandoned
and neglected
houses
- More elderly
people than youths
- Poor services
- Half empty
schools
- Unmaintained
roads
- Shortage of
housing
- Deforestation
caused by physical
urbanization
- Congestion
- Pollution
- Squatting
- More social
problems
(prostitution, drug
and substance
abuse and crime)
- Environmental
despoliation
Importance of Towns
- They are centres of consumptions
- They are administrative centres
- They are centres of commerce
- They control imports and exports
Disadvantages of Towns
- They grow at the expense of rural areas
- They encourage the system that favours
small but wealthy minority
Effects of urbanization
i. Positive effects
Coming in of new ideas due to
interaction of different groups of
people.
Availability of social services
Better living standards
Infrastructural development such as
modern roads and office buildings.
j. Negative effects
High unemployment levels
Shortage of housing
Increase in social problems, such as
crime, prostitution and aggressive
behaviours.
Development of squatter settlement
Lack of property rights due to
illegal or unregistered settlements or
slums.
Breakdown of traditional family
link. More town dwellers tend to be
selfish by adopting foreign life
style.
Low food production as many
youths migrate to towns leaving
elders in rural areas managing
farms.
Traffic jam which may cause
accidents
Solutions to challenges associated with
urbanisation
Providing parking areas in cities
Providing free ways, one way streets
and traffic lights to accelerate traffic
flow
Discouraging cars from coming to CBD
by introducing parking meters and
parking fees for entry to CBD
Demolition and redevelopment of
outdated buildings and slums
Restoration and conservation of
buildings which have historical
importance
Building of new towns to reduce
overcrowding in cities
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Establishment of rural growth centres
Introducing small scale industries in
rural areas that employ many people
Environmental risks associated with
settlements
Deforestation
Water and air pollution due to various
industrial activities and increased use of
motor cars which release harmful gases.
Substandard housing may be a breeding
ground for disease causing organisms.
Spreading disease outbreak due to
overcrowding
Poor sanitation which spreads diseases
Ways of dealing with environmental risks
associated with settlements
By proper waste management, e.g. by
burying wastes to avoid bad smell.
Location of industries should be
properly planned.
Practising afforestation and
reafforestation
Adopting proper mechanisms to reduce
the emissions of harmful gases from
industries.
Promoting the use of renewable energy
resources.
Establishment of satellite towns and
rural growth centres in order to reduce
pressure on resources in cities.
Conducting awareness campaign on the
proper conservation measures of natural
resources in towns.
The functional zones of Lilongwe city
Lilongwe City is rapidly expanding into
different directions although the growth in
some areas is far much faster than the other.
The City is divided into four main functional
sectors that include:
1 Capital Hill Sector
It is a CBD of Lilongwe City. It also
called a city centre. It is where the
capital city buildings are located. It is the
administrative centre. There also
important high value businesses areas
and banks.
2 Kanengo Sector
It is the major industrial site of
Lilongwe. There is vast land to
accommodate new industries.
3 Old Town Sector
It accommodates a variety of urban
functions such as residential areas,
commercial activities, administrative
functions and recreation centres (golf
club. There are light industries such as
food processing and carpentry and
joinery.
4 Lumbadzi Sector
Kamuzu International Airport (KIA) is
located there. There are also residences,
light industries, agriculture land and
commercial activities.
Factors for the growth of Lilongwe city
Relocation of capital city from Zomba to
Lilongwe.
Relocation of some leading
administrative offices from Blantyre to
Lilongwe.
The transferring of parliament from
Zomba to Lilongwe.
It is a rich agricultural land that attracts
many people to settle there.
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Accessibility by land and air. It has a
good road network.
Availability of social amenities like
Kamuzu Central Hospital and high
standard shopping centres.
Challenges of rapid urbanisation of
Lilongwe city
Water shortage
High crime rate
Unemployment
Sanitation problems due to blockage of
sewage pipes and drains.
Traffic jam during rush hours.
Air pollution
Housing problems that influence the
development of squatter settlement.
Solutions to the challenges of rapid
urbanisation of Lilongwe city
Providing parking areas in cities
Providing free ways, one way streets
and traffic lights to accelerate traffic
flow
Discouraging cars from coming to CBD
by introducing parking meters and
parking fees for entry to CBD
Demolition and redevelopment of
outdated buildings and slums
Ensuring proper waste disposal
Building of new towns to reduce
overcrowding in cities
Protecting water catchment areas
Establishment of rural growth centres
Introducing small scale industries in
rural areas that employ many people
Other terminologies in urban settlement
Compatibility of urban functions: it
means urban functions that attract each
other. E.g. Banks and high value shops
are compatible, but bars are not
compatible to schools.
Urban decay: this is the development of
slum conditions.
Centrifugal forces: these are factors
that encourage movement from the CBD
to suburbs. They are either push are pull
factors.
Functional magnetism: attraction of
functions by others.
Functional prestige: attraction of
activities to the area which are of the
same type.
Functional convenience: this is place
where people stay near their working
place.
Rural urban fringe: it is a zone where
rural and urban settlements merge into
each other.
Greenbelt: a band of land around the
city on which development of new
buildings is banned. It protects the
countryside, prevent towns from
merging and restrict urban sprawl.
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TOPIC 13 WORLD AGRICULTURE
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain agriculture as a system
2. Explain factors that influence agriculture
3. Identify factors influencing agriculture (physical, economic, human and technological)
4. Identify types of agriculture
5. Explain the difference between subsistence agriculture and commercial agriculture
6. Locate on the world maps areas where different types of agriculture are practised
7. Differentiate between intensive and extensive farming
World Agriculture as a System
World agriculture is described as a system
because it involves the extraction of
resources from the environment and
processes them to produce the new products.
In general, agriculture is described as a
system because it contains three components
which are interrelated such as input,
processes and output. The diagram below
describes world agriculture as a system. The
outputs are returned back into environment
for further production which serve as inputs
again after selling or as manure and feed for
animals.
Farming satisfies to be a system because:
It is made up of interrelated components.
It has a purpose to do.
It needs supplies of energy to keep it
going
Farmers need to adjust the way they run
and manage their work.
Factors that Influence World Agriculture
Factors that affect the world agriculture are
classified into the following categories:
a. Physical factors
b. Biotic factors
c. Social or cultural factors
d. Economic factors
e. Technological factors
Physical Factors:
Warmth, intensity and duration of
sunshine influence crop maturity and
ripening.
Rainfall provides soil moisture for crop
growth.
Harsh climate (aridity) hinders
agricultural development.
Flat topography enables mechanisation.
It also determines the choice of irrigation
method.
Sloping land which is well-drained is
good for the growing of coffee and tea.
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Well-drained, fertile soil encourages
crop cultivation. Infertile soils hinder
agricultural development.
Different types of soil are suited to
different types of soil.
Biotic Factors
Pets, diseases and animal parasites
reduce agricultural production.
Social or Cultural Factors:
Some religions prevent particular
agricultural practices.
Culture has influence on the choice of
agricultural practices.
Government policies have a great
influence on agricultural practices, E.g.
quota system. Quota is the maximum
amount of goods to be offered for sale.
Quota helps to control the production
and supply of agricultural products.
The government also prohibits the
importation of animals and crop
products during the period of animal and
crop disease outbreak.
Economic Factors
Capital helps to purchase inputs and
paying for other services.
Financial institutions which provide
funding for agricultural operations.
Availability of markets helps farmers to
produce more goods for sale.
Technological Factors
Use of machinery
Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and
drugs
Improved crop varieties and animals
breeds
Soil conservation measures
Irrigation
Transportation technology
Ploughing
Crop processing and preservation
Types of Agricultural Systems Based on
Purpose of Production
a. Subsistence Farming
b. Commercial Farming
Subsistence Farming
This is where the agricultural products are
used for food or prestige and only the
surplus is sold.
Characteristics of subsistence farming
It uses family members as source of
labour
Crops and animals are meant for
domestic consumption
Variety of crops and animals are raised.
Simple tools are used
Examples of Subsistence Farming
a. Pastoralism or Pastoral Nomadism
b. Sifting Cultivation
Characteristics of Subsistence Farming
It uses family members as source of
labour
Crops and animals are meant for
domestic consumption
Variety of crops and animals are raised.
Simple tools are sued
Advantages of Subsistence Farming
It is cheap as it uses simple tools and
family members for labour.
Farmers do not pay tax to government
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Farmers become food self sufficient
Disadvantages of Subsistence Farming
Small and fragmented landholdings do
not allow mechanization
Farmers do not pay government’s
revenue
Traditional farming methods of farming
are practised, e.g. use of simple tools
It leads to soil degradation as farmers
use simple tools.
Shifting Cultivation
It involves clearing a forest land and burn
vegetation to grow crops for few years. It is
also called slash-and-burn as the bushes are
cleared and burnt. It uses simple tools such
as hoes, axes and panga knives.
Crops are grown for few years where ash is
used as fertilizer. After land is degraded, it is
abandoned for another virgin land. This is a
very primitive form of farming which causes
deforestation.
Other names for shifting cultivation in
other countries
Name of
shifting
cultivation
Country
Milpa
Zimbabwe and
Mexico
Lading
Malaysia and
Indonesia
Tamarai
Thailand
Taungya
Burma
Roca
Brazil
Caingin
Philippines
Poda or Bewar
India
Chitemene
Zambia
Visoso
Malawi
Masole
DRC
Chena
Sri Lanka
Advantages of Shifting Cultivation
Fire kills weeds
Ash is a cheap source of fertilizer
Burning of bush save labour costs
Disadvantages of Shifting Cultivation
It leads to deforestation
Burning of bushes destroys habitat for
wildlife.
There are no permanent settlements and
structures.
Burning of bushes destroys humus
which impoverishes the soil
Nomadic Pastoralism
This is the practice of rearing animals by
moving them to different areas looking for
food and water for animals. It is also known
as transhumance (means seasonal
movement of people with animals to
different places where they can find food
and water for animals).
The nomads keep animals just for food,
transport and prestige. They are not meant
for sale.
Pastoralism is practised in sparsely
populated areas.
The groups of nomads
Region
Nomads
Animals
East Africa
Masai
Cattle
West Africa
Fulani
Cattle
North Africa
(Sahel
Region
Tuaregs
Camel
Saud Arabia
Bedouins
Sheep
Scandinavia
Lapps
Reindeers
Central Asia
Kirghiz,
Kalmuoks
and Kazaks
Sheep
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Problems of Pastoralism
There is no settlement and development
as herders keep on moving to different
areas with their herds.
Poor quality animals due to insufficient
pasture and water.
Herders keep large herds of animals
which cause to overgrazing.
Commercial Farming
Crops and animals are raised for sale.
Characteristics of Commercial Farming
Farmers specialize in one crop or
animal
There are generally high yields
High levels of technology
There is hired labour
There is large capital input
Estate farming is practised
Advantages of Commercial Farming
Framers pay tax which is source of
government’s revenue
It employs many people
It helps to improve food production
Disadvantages of Commercial Farming
Being monocultural, diseases spread
easily.
It limits the growing of food crops.
It requires heavy capital inputs.
It degrades environment due to high
chemical use.
It is affected by drought, pests and
diseases.
The difference between subsistence
agriculture and commercial agriculture
Subsistence
farming
Commercial
farming
Variety of crops and
animals are raised.
Farmers specialize in
one crop or animal
Low yields
There are generally
high yields
Low levels of
technology
High levels of
technology
It uses family
members as source
of labour
There is hired labour
Low levels of capital
input
There is large capital
input
Dependence on
labour input with
simple farm tools
Farms are
mechanized
It is practised in
small piece of land
It is practised in
large piece of land
It is done in densely
populated areas
It is done in sparsely
populated areas
Crops and animals
are meant for
domestic
consumption
Animals and crops
are raised for sale
Types of agriculture based on the
intensity of land use
a. Intensive Farming
b. Extensive Farming
Intensive Farming
It is the system of farming that uses high
levels of capital, inputs, fertilizer,
technology and labour on a small piece of
land. It is done in areas where land is scarce
with relatively high population density.
Examples of intensive
a. Dairy farming in Denmark
b. Polder farming in Netherlands
Characteristics of Intensive Farming
Small land holdings
Much land labour is used
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High application of input and labour
Continuous land use or cultivation is
done
High yields per unit land
Double or treble cropping per year
Under-utilization of animals
Irrigation is used in times of drought
Advantages of Intensive Farming
It ensures high yields per hectare
There are double or more yields per
annum
There is continuous use of land without
losing soil fertility
Soil acidity is avoided by means of
irrigation
Use of small piece of land helps to
control damage of ecosystem, e.g.
intensive animal system helps to control
overgrazing
Problems Associated with Intensive
Farming
Very high labour input leads to
rheumatism of wrists and ankles
Under-utilization of animals
Fragmented and scattered land holdings
make it difficult to manage them
effectively.
Land is degraded due to continuous
cultivation
There is high demand for labour that
may replace machinery
c. Extensive Farming
It is the system of farming that uses low
levels of capital, inputs, fertilizer,
pesticides and labour on a large area
piece of land. It is practised in sparsely
populated area.
Examples of extensive
a. Cattle ranching
b. Pastral nomadism
c. Extensive wheat farming in Canada
d. Extensive rice farming in South East
Asia
Characteristics of Extensive Farming
Large landholdings
It is monocultural
Mechanization is practiced
Yields are low per unit land but low per
individual
Characteristics of extensive farming
Use of machinery speeds up work
There is improved animal welfare as
they are allowed to move freely
Less labour is required per unit land
due to mechanization
Disadvantages of extensive farming
It is negatively affected by price
fluctuations at the international market
It requires sparsely populated areas
Irrigation is not possible due to size of
land
Use of machinery is expensive
Large land limit the habitat for wildlife
It requires flat land for easy
mechanization.
In case of extensive animal farming, it
leads to overgrazing.
It also leads to disease outbreak and
multiplication of parasites in animals
Animals lose energy as they travel long
distances looking for pasture and water
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Differences between intensive and
extensive agriculture
Intensive farming
Extensive farming
Small land holdings
Large landholdings
Much land labour is
used
Farms are
mechanized
High application of
input and labour
Low levels of
labour and input
Continuous land use
or cultivation is done
Land use is seasonal
High yields per unit
land
Low yields per unit
land, but high
overall yields
Double or treble
cropping per year
Crops are grown
once a year or
perennially
Irrigation is used in
times of drought
No irrigation is used
Importance of Agriculture to the
Country’s Development
It provides food to many people
It provides income to farmers after
selling agricultural products.
It provides employment to farmers and
those working agro based industries.
It provides raw materials for processing
of new products, such as food and
clothes.
It provides revenue to government
through taxation.
It provides foreign exchange earnings to
Government after exporting agricultural
products.
Impact of Agriculture on Environment
Deforestation as farmers clear large
forest land for opening up new farms.
Tobacco farmers use a lot of trees to
cure tobacco.
Soil erosion and land degradation when
farmers cultivate in river banks and steep
slopes that accelerate soils erosion.
Climate change by increased cattle
production whose dungs produce more
methane which is a greenhouse gas.
Damming for irrigation purposes creates
breeding ground for disease causing
organisms, e.g. mosquitoes.
Water pollution due to excessive use of
fertilizer and pesticides.
High frequency of flooding due to
erosion and silting of water bodies.
Depletion of water resources due to
destruction of vegetative cover.
Pesticides and herbicides kill useful
organisms in the environment that
disturbs ecosystem.
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TOPIC 14 INTENSIVE RICE FARMING IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Locate south east Asia on a world map
1. Identify countries where rice is grown in south eastern Asia
2. Describe the population density of south east Asia
2. Explain conditions favouring rice farming in south east Asia
3. Draw a pie charts showing the cycle of farming activities in a year
4. Relate the cycle of farming activities to the cycle of seasons
5. Describe the problems associated with rice farming in south east Asia
6. Explain problems associated with rice farming in south east Asia
7. Explain the importance of intensive rice farming to the economies of the countries in south
east Asia
Rice Farming South East Asia
Rice is the staple food in the south Eastern
Asia. China and India are the leading rice
producers in the world. Other countries are
Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Cambodia, Thailand and
Vietnam
Population Density of South East Asia
South East Asia is the world’s most densely
populated area; this encourages intensive
farming.
Types of Rice
a. Upland or dry rice
It is grown in the upland areas where
monsoon rainfall is the source of
moisture. In steeply sloping areas,
terraces are constructed in order to hold
the rain water.
b. Lowland or wet rice
It is grown in the low lying areas such
as river banks or floodplains, deltas and
coastal areas. Rice is grown in puddies.
A puddy is strip of land enclosed by
bunds which hold irrigation water.
Flood irrigation is practiced Most of the
rice is grown in puddies.
Conditions Favouring Rice Growing
An average warm temperature of 18
0C
to 27
0
C throughout the year.
Rainfall of 2000mm during the growing
season; dry and sunny period of at least
two months towards harvesting.
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Abundant water supply in dry season
for flood irrigation.
Flat land that facilitates flood irrigation.
Water retentive heavy fertile loam and
clay soil.
Abundant labour supply for farm
operations like land preparation, sowing
and harvesting.
Heavy capital outlay that assist to carry
out farm operations.
A cycle of Farming Activities
Month
Season
Puddy
plantation
activities
May
Rainy season
approaches
Preparing
rice fields
and nurseries
June to July
The onset of
rainy season
Sowing rice
August
Rains
increase
Transplanting
September
to October
Rains start to
decrease
Main field
operation
(weeding,
applying
fertilizer, pest
control and
controlling
water levels
November
north East
monsoon
winds starts
to bring dry
conditions
Draining the
fields
Draining the
fields
December
Dry season
Harvesting,
processing
and storage
January
Dry season
Preparing
rice fields
and nurseries
for the next
growing
season
February to
North East
Sowing, field
April
monsoon
winds
subsides
maintenance
and
harvesting
Relate the cycle of farming activities to
the cycle of seasons
The region has the following cycle of
seasons:
The Cultivation Operations of Rice
1. Preparations of rice nurseries
Seed beds are prepared a month before
sowing followed by selection of rice
seeds.
2. Preparations of rice fields
Ploughing the fields is done by hand
using hoes or animals are also used.
Then the large clods are harrowed.
3. Transplanting rice seedling
Seedlings are transplanted when they are
one month from sowing and with four to
five leaves.
4. Controlling water level
Water levels needs to be controlled in
order to avoid seedlings due to excessive
moisture that may submerge rice
seedlings.
5. Weeding
Weeds are uprooted.
6. Fertilizer application
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Fertilizer is broadcasted in three phases
like:
1. Before transplanting seedlings
2. One month after transplanting
3. Soon before flowering
7. Controlling pests
Snares and traps are used to control birds
and rodents. Some soil pests are
controlled by flooding. Others are
controlled by means of pesticides.
8. Draining off the rice fields
The fields are drained just 2-3 months
before harvesting to facilitate ripening of
rice.
9. Harvesting and processing rice
Rice plants are cut by sickles and
bundled together. The bundles are then
dried in the sun. After drying them, they
are threshed and winnowed by tossing in
the bamboo straw.
Problems Associated with Rice Farming
a. Waterborne diseases
b. Rheumatism or muscle diseases. Most
Asian farmers do not mechanise their
farms because:
They are poor to hire and buy
machines.
The fields are very small to
mechanise.
c. Drought
d. Deterioration of soil due to continuous
mono-cropping. This also occurs due to
irrigation in the uplands that erode soil.
e. Salinity due to irrigation by dirty water
f. Rugged terrain hinders irrigation
g. Rising water levels and water lodging
h. Pests and diseases attack rice plants.
Importance of Intensive Rice Farming to
the Economies of the Countries in South
East Asia
It provides income to rice farmers.
It provides employment to rice farmers
and those working in agro-based
industries.
The countries earn foreign exchange
It improves food security to the growing
population. Rice is the main staple food
to many people in the region.
Rice Farming in Malawi
Rice is grown by smallholder farmers in
Malawi. Most of rice is along in:
Lakeshore areas of Karonga, Nkhata
Bay, Nkhotakota, Salima and Mangochi
Shire Valley region
Wetlands of Lake Chilwa in Zomba and
Machinga.
Rice growing is not enough to meet market
demand both at local and international
markets. As a result, Malawi has to import
rice from other countries.
Problems that Hinder Successful Rice
Cultivation in Malawi
Loss of soil fertility due to soil erosion.
Most farmers lack adequate knowledge
in rice growing.
Frequent droughts that affects many
parts of the country.
Lack of machinery to boost the
production.
Lack of better and high yielding rice
varieties.
Poor prices that discourage famers to
grow more crops.
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Diseases and insect pests that attack rice
fields.
Efforts to Rice Farming in Malawi
Expansion and establishment of
irrigation schemes through the Green
Belt Initiative.
Investing in research for better rice
varieties.
Searching for international markets
where farmers can sell their rice.
Development of simple machineries
such as treadle pumps for irrigation.
Providing fertilizer and input subsidies
to farmers.
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TOPIC 15 INTENSIVE ANIMAL FARMING IN DENMARK
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Locate Denmark on a world map
2. Explain factors favouring dairy farming in Denmark
3. Identify breeds of cattle raised on dairy farms in Denmark
4. Identify crops grown on dairy farms
5. Explain the importance of crops grown on a dairy farm in Denmark
6. Explain the use of the crops grown on dairy farms
7. Relate the cycle of seasons to farming activities on a dairy farm in Denmark
8. Identify products from dairy farms
9. Explain the term cooperatives
10. Explain the importance of cooperatives in dairy farming in Denmark
11. Explain the importance of dairy farming to the economy of Denmark
12. Locate other dairy farming areas on a world map
Countries Where Dairy Farming is
Practiced
Holland
Denmark
Switzerland
New Zealand
France
South Africa
Dairy Farming in Denmark
There are four islands and a peninsula called
Jutland that make up Denmark. The islands
include Fyn, Lolland, Falster and Zealand.
Eastern Jutland and all the four islands have
fertile soil while in the western Jutland there
is sandy and infertile soil. The infertile land
is reclaimed by various means to make it
worthy cultivatable
Dairy farming is the rearing of animals with
the main purpose of producing milk. The
western Jutland there is sandy and infertile
soil. The infertile land is reclaimed by
various means to make it worthy
cultivatable.
Other animals raised on dairy farms include
poultry, pigs and sheep. Milking short horn
Characteristics of Dairy Farming as
Intensive Farming
There are small land holdings
It is labour, input and capital intensive
There is use of intensive farming
methods
Milk is the main source of income
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How to Manage Dairy Cattle
Dairy animals produce more milk when
there is proper management as follows:
Proper feeding: dairy cattle should be
fed on the different types of pastures
(e.g. hay and silage) and a mixture of
grains and grain by-products.
Proper housing: Each animal should
have enough space and the house should
be strong and leak-proof.
Very high sanitary conditions: Each
animal needs a very clean environment
in terms clean food, water and the entire
housing environment should be clean.
Favourable Factors that Encourage Dairy
Farming
Over-farmed land to restore soil fertility
Availability of a large urban market
Fertile soils for the growth of fresh and
high grade pastures
Skilled workforce needed in the
management of dairy animals.
High levels of technology.
Availability of high grade pasture
Mild and wet conditions that promote
the growth of folder crops and natural
pastures
Availability of very efficient refrigerated
transport as milk is highly perishable.
Crops Associated with Dairy Farming
Pastures for grazing in summer
Wheat, barley, potatoes and sugar beets
Folder crops for indoor feeding during
winter
The Dairy Breeds in Denmark
Guernsey
Friesian
Brown Swiss
Jersey
Alderney.
Cycle of Activities on Dairy Farms
Season
Farm activities
Spring
(March to
May)
Mating dairy cows
(using artificial
insemination and bulls)
Stall feeding calves for
six months
Planting crops for
feeding animals, e.g.
turnips and maize.
Branding calves
Summer
(June to
August)
Hay making
Outdoor grazing
Irrigating pastures
Milking cows
Autumn
(September
to
November)
Cows finish milking
Maintenance and
development of farm
structures
Planning for next
season
Winter
(December
to
February)
Stall feeding cows (hay
and silage)
Other Animals Associated with Dairy
Farming
Pigs
Poultry
Sheep
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Beef cattle raised for other purposes
Products from dairy farms
Cheese
Butter
Yoghurt
Ice cream
Condensed milk
Powdered milk
Roles of Cooperatives in Dairy Farming
Cooperative is a group of dairy farmers who
put their resources for the common benefit
or purpose. Dairy farmers work in groups
that assist each other to improve farming
techniques.
Cooperatives play important roles such as:
They provide loans to farmers.
They assist farmers buy inputs in bulk at
relatively lower prices.
They process milk into various products
on behalf of famers.
They provide marketing functions on
behalf of farmers like storage,
transportation and grading.
They offer research and advisory
services to farmers on new and better
farming techniques.
Importance of Dairy Farming
It provides employment to farmers.
It is source of foreign exchange.
Milk is vey nutritious food.
It is source of income to dairy farmers
Problems of Dairy Farming in Denmark
Long severe winters prevent outdoor
grazing which makes it difficult and
expensive to stall feed animals.
There is scarcity of labour force as
youths migrate to towns for white collar
jobs.
Shortage of land for dairy farming due
rapid population growth.
Dairy Farming in Malawi
There are smallholder farmers who practice
dairy farming in Malawi either individually
or in cooperatives. One of the cooperatives
is Bvumbwe Dairy Farmers Cooperative
Society.
Importance of Dairy Farming in Malawi
It provides income to farmers.
It helps to reduce importing of milk and
milk products
It encourages the development of milk
processing and feedstuff manufacturing
industries.
It provides fresh milk to the growing
population.
It helps government to collect revenue
from surtax from farmers.
Problems of Dairy Farming in Malawi
High surtax charges limit farmers from
making profits
Lack of capital by farmers
Lack of proper knowledge and skill
about management of dairy animals.
Insufficient feedstuffs during due to
drought conditions.
Prevalence of parasites and diseases
Efforts to Improve Dairy Farming in
Malawi
Training farmers on the management of
dairy animals
Providing dairy farmers with loans.
Providing farmers with cooling facilities
Providing farmers with veterinary
services.
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TOPIC 16 IRRIGATION FARMING
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Identify a world map showing areas where irrigation farming is practiced
2. Locate areas that depend on irrigation on a world map
3. Describe conditions which necessitate irrigation farming
4. Identify methods of irrigation, e.g. overhead, drip and furrow
5. Explain challenges associated with irrigation farming
6. Explain solutions to challenges facing irrigation farming
7. Identify areas where irrigation is practised in Malawi
8. Explain problems facing irrigation in Malawi
9. Explain how irrigation can be improved in Malawi
Irrigation is the application of water onto the
land with an aim of growing crops. It is used
as a supplement to rainfall more especially
when rainfall is unreliable or in dry areas.
Irrigation farming is an example of intensive
farming.
Areas where Irrigation Takes Place
Nile Valley in Egypt
Gezira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan
Indus Valley in Pakistan
Hwang-Ho and Yangtze Kiang Valleys
in India
Israel
Nchalo in Malawi
Central Valley of California
Necessary Conditions for Irrigation to
Take Place
Arid or drought conditions such as in the
deserts
Adequate and reliable water supply in
the area
Flat land that holds water
Heavy clayey soils that retain water
Irrigation Methods
There methods are classified into two main
groups namely:
1. Traditional methods
Well irrigation
Basin or annual irrigation
Furrow irrigation
Tank Irrigation
2. Modern methods
Overhead or sprinkler irrigation
Trickle or drip irrigation
Traditional Methods
1. Well irrigation
A well is a hole sunk into the ground to
reach the water table that provides water
for irrigation.
2. Basin or annual irrigation
It depends on the seasonal flooding of
the river during the period of heavy
rainfall. The walls are constructed on the
flood plain that store water. The
irrigation ditches are dug that distribute
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water to the fields where irrigation takes
place. Sometimes, water is brought into
the fields and flows all over the ground.
Advantages of annual irrigation
Plants get sufficient moisture as water
covers the whole field.
It does not require any technical
knowledge for the operation and
maintenance.
Disadvantages of annual irrigation
It requires lot f water, it is wasteful.
It encourages water lodging, soil
erosion, leaching of plant nutrients and
soil salinity.
3. Tank Irrigation
It involves the construction of mud-
bunds to make water reservoirs across
called tanks that store water to be used
later for irrigation.
4. Furrow Irrigation
Water flows in furrows or ditches.
Advantages of Furrow Irrigation
It is cheaper as no special equipment is
used.
Large areas are irrigated.
Disadvantages of Furrow Irrigation
It uses large volumes of irrigation
water.
It is difficult to move farm equipment
throughout the farm due to slippery soil
conditions.
It time consuming and expensive to
construct furrows.
There is uneven distribution of water in
the field.
Moving water washes away nutrients
from the furrows.
Modern Irrigation Methods
1. Trickle or drip
Water is supplied to plant roots through
the pipes which are buried underground.
Advantages of Trickle Irrigation
It controls loss of water through
evaporation as water directly reaches
the roots.
It is easy to supply fertilizer to plants
together with water.
The dry ground between the furrows
provides easy access to workers and
machinery to move.
It prevents the growth of weeds in
furrows as water reaches the roots only.
Disadvantages of Sprinkler Irrigation
It is expensive to install and maintain.
It requires technical knowledge for the
operation and maintenance.
2. Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation:
Water is applied to crops in form of
showers like rainfall. Water that falls on
the leaves evaporates before reaching the
roots.
Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation
There is uniform application of water
It does require leveling of lad.
It is good for the application of fertilizer
and pesticides in solution form.
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Disadvantages o Sprinkler Irrigation
It is expensive to buy and maintain
irrigation pipes and pumps.
It is less efficient during windy days as
showers are deflected by strong wind.
It is wasteful as some water may fall
away from roots and some that falls on
leaves evaporates before it reaches
roots.
Characteristics of Irrigation as an
Intensive Farming
There is use of small land holdings
Crop cultivation is continuous
There is double or treble cropping
There are higher yields per hectare
Problems Associated With Irrigation
Spreading of waterborne diseases, i.e.
Bilharzia
It leads to salinity that encourages the
formation of hard-pans
Dam silting or sedimentation
Theft of irrigation pipes.
High cost of buying, installing and
maintaining irrigation equipment and
facilities.
Water lodging due to excess application
of water.
Water pollution by some waste dumped
in river or dams.
Solutions to the Problems Associated
With Irrigation
Desalinating water
Reusing wastewater
Proper waste management in order to
prevent water pollution.
Using efficient irrigation methods that
save water.
Afforestation to check soil erosion
and silting.
Storing enough water (water harvesting)
during rainy season to be used during
water crisis.
Irrigation Farming in Malawi
Irrigation is practiced in Malawi farming
during the dry season by the smallholder
famers.
Areas where Irrigation Farming Takes
Place in Malawi
1. Lakeshore areas
Karonga, Salima, Nkhata Bay and
Mangochi
2. Lower Shire districts
Chikwawa and Nsanje
3. Lake Chilwa Phalombe Plain
4. Wetlands
Limmphasa dambo, Ndindi Marsh,
Elephant Marsh and Vwaza Marsh.
5. Along the main rivers in Malawi, such as
Bua, Lintipe, Bwanje, Rukuru,
Dwangwa and Ruo.
Problems Affecting Irrigation Farming in
Malawi
Inadequate irrigation technologies that
affects production. Most smallholder
farmers use watering cane instead of
irrigation pumps which can water a large
land within as short period of time.
Lack of local participation and
ownership of irrigation schemes by local
communities.
Over-dependency on donor aid, meaning
that when donor aid ceases many
farmers are discouraged.
Siltation of water bodies.
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Depletion of fresh water resources due to
drought and silting as a result of
mismanagement of resources.
Lack of political will to invest in dam
construction and other agriculture
initiatives.
Theft of irrigation equipment
Flooding along the major rivers in
Malawi that destroy the crops at the
onset of rainy season
Ways of Improving Irrigation Farming in
Malawi
In irrigation at smallholder level by
government and non-governmental
organizations.
Rehabilitating the existing irrigation
schemes
Encouraging organic farming and
minimizing agro-chemicals in order to
check water pollution.
Providing awareness campaigns on
proper waste management in irrigation
schemes.
Training farmers on proper land and
water management.
Monitoring water lodging and salination
of irrigation schemes.
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TOPIC 17 IRRIGATION IN ISRAEL
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Locate Israel on a world map
2. Identify the climatic regions under which Israel falls
3. Relate the climate, relief and soil to water supply
4. Identify methods of irrigation in Israel
5. Locate areas where irrigation is practiced in Israel
6. Identify the challenges encountered in sourcing irrigation water in Israel
7. Identify the sources, treatment and distribution of irrigation water in Israel
8. Identify the crops grown under irrigation in Israel
Israel is a small country with an area of
20440km
2
and half of it is made up of a
desert. It is under the Mediterranean Climate
that has average rainfall of between 400mm
and 800mm in winter. Northern and Western
parts receive rains and desert in south east.
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There are four regions in Israel which are
i. Mediterranean Coastal Plain
It is flat and fertile.
ii. Hilly Country of Galilee
It is bounded by the Sea of Galilee in
the north, Judea Hill in the centre and
Jordan River valley to the east
iii. The Rift Valley Region
The region is below the sea level that
extends from the Sea of Galilee to Dead
Sea via Jordan River.
iv. Negev Desert
It is very hot and dry. There is no rainfall
from May to October. Irrigation takes
place here.
Importance of Irrigation in the Negev
Desert
It facilitates agricultural production in
order to increase food production for the
growing population.
It influences settlement to take place in
the region
It induces business and employment
It eradicates aridity I the area.
How Climate, Relief and Soil; Influence
Irrigation Farming in Israel
1. Climate
Aridity climate forced people to
engage in irrigation farming in order
to ensure food security.
Scarcity of fresh water in the water
bodies encouraged in the
desalination of sea water.
Use of drip irrigation method
saves water that controls
evaporation.
Water is supplied to plant roots
through the pipes which are buried
underground. It helps to control loss
of water through evaporation as it
directly reaches the roots.
2. Relief
Since the fresh water is found below
the sea level, people use pipes and
other water conveyance systems that
distribute water to where it is
needed.
3. Soil
Due to infertile sandy soils, they use
drip irrigation method which reduce
loss through evaporation.
Sources of Water for Irrigation in Israel
a. Lake Kenerate also known as Lake
Tiberias or Sea of Galilee. It is reliable
source of fresh water supply.
b. Yarkon River which provides water
directly to Negev Desert.
c. Groundwater is tapped using wells
Major Reasons for Water Shortage in
Israel
a. Overconsumption of water by the rapid
population growth and industrialization.
b. Insufficient rain water and high
evaporation rate. Evaporation exceeds
precipitation which keeps the land
always dry.
Methods of Obtaining Water from the
Sources
Use of pipelines. Pipelines are very
important as they prevent loss of water
through evaporation.
Canals are also used to lead water to
where irrigation takes place. The
disadvantage of canals is that water is
lost through evaporation.
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Water Desalination Processes
Desalination is the process of removing salts
from water to make it suitable for use. Due
to scarcity of fresh water in Israel, water
which is available is desalinated. Water
desalination plants are located at Eilat and
Haifa. The following are the desalination
methods used in Israel.
Desalination Processes
a. Reverse Osmosis or Membrane
Process
Salty water is pressed against a semi
permeable membrane where fresh water
is allowed to pass through as brine
(salty water) remains behind.
Advantages of Reverse Osmosis or
Membrane Process
It is cheap as it uses less energy.
It is very efficient and produces large
volumes of fresh water.
Disadvantages of Reverse Osmosis or
Membrane Process
It uses very sophisticated technology
which requires high levels of
technological investment.
It can easily breakdown when the
membrane blocks.
b. Evaporation or Distillation Process
Sea water is led into the hot chambers
where it is boiled to evaporation. Steam
is harnessed and condensed to produce
fresh water ready for irrigation. This
process is similar to the one that is used
for brewing kachasu.
Advantages of Evaporation Process
It produces high quality water.
It is effective to treat water with high
quantities of impurities.
It is cheap as it uses simple technology
Disadvantages of Evaporation Process
It requires a lot of energy.
It increases greenhouse effect due to
high energy consumption.
It produces less fresh water than brine.
c. Vacuum freezing
Sea water is led into the freezing
chambers where it is frozen to form a
thin mixture of liquid water and ice
crystals. Ice crystals are washed to
remove the brine. Then the ice crystals
are melted to produce fresh water
This process is used at Haifa. It is
cheaper than other desalination
processes.
Advantages of Vacuum Freezing
It needs less energy
It has causes less corrosion and salt
precipitation.
Disadvantages of Vacuum Freezing
It is expensive as it requires huge
capital investment.
Brine returned to the environment
has negative impact on plants and
aquatic animals.
Desalination plants occupy large
land that would be used for other
developments, such settlement.
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Irrigation Methods that are used in Israel
Sprinkler irrigation method though it is
wasteful sometimes.
Drip irrigation method is widely used as
it saves water.
The Challenges Encountered in Sourcing
Irrigation Water in Israel
There is conflict between the Arabs and
Israelites over the use and ownership of
Jordan River
High cost of pumping water from Sea of
Galilee to Negev Desert.
High rate of evaporation
Saline water
Leakage of irrigation pipes
Sandy soils are not water retentive
Crops Grown under Irrigation
Crops grown include tomatoes,
sunflower, sugarbeet, citrus fruits,
apples, pears, peaches, apricot, cotton,
wheat, barley, ornamental plants
(flowers) and spring potatoes.
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TOPIC 18 PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1 Explain the term plantation farming
2 Identify areas where plantation farming is practiced
3 Explain the characteristics of plantation farming
4 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming
Plantation agriculture is the commercial
cultivation of perennial crops done on the
estate basis.
World Distribution of Plantation Crops
CROP
COUNTRY
Bananas
West Africa and Latin
America
Cocoa
Brazil, Nigeria, Ivory
Coast, Ghana and
Gabon
Coconut
Malaysia, India,
Indonesia and
Philippines
Coffee
El Salvador, Angola,
Brazil and Uganda
Rubber
Liberia, Sri Lanka,
Indonesia and
Malaysia
Sisal
Tanzania, Uganda,
Madagascar and
Kenya
Sugarcane
All tropical regions
Tea
India, Sri Lanka,
Kenya, Malawi and
Mozambique
Characteristics of Plantation Farming
Estate farming is practiced. Sometimes
smallholder farming is possible.
Foreign ownership of plantation estates
with local labour is used
Plantation farms are scientifically
managed to meet the required standards
There is heavy capital input
Onsite processing of the products
It is labor intensive since crops need
more care
Advantages of Plantation Farming
It ensures regular supply of the produce
for domestic and industrial use
Workers are equipped with various skills
about plantation farming
Harvesting is done quickly, efficiently
and cheaply
It ensures no wastage of resources since
the wastes are used as fuel or fertilizer
It provides high income earnings to
government through export revenue.
It supports local manufacturing
industries.
Disadvantages of Plantation Farming
Price fluctuations at the world markets
reduce production
Plantation crops are affected by the
climatic hazards
It depends on the presence of cheap
labour leading to exploitation.
Diseases spread easily due to
monocultural practice.
Plantation farms occupy large forest land
that cause deforestation
Lengthy period to start harvests
Agro-based processing industries cause
water pollution by effluent discharges in
water.
Heavy rainfall leads to leaching which
deteriorates the soil. As a result, there is
demand for heavy application of
fertilizer.
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TOPIC 19 TEA GROWING AREAS IN MALAWI
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Explain the conditions favourable for tea growing
2. Locate tea growing areas on a map of Malawi
3. Explain a cycle of farming activities
4. Explain the stages of processing of tea
5. Explain the importance of the tea industry to Malawi’s economy
6. Explain showing the value of tea and four other major export commodities for Malawi
China is the world’s largest producer of tea
from which Malawi’s tea originated. Other
world’ tea producers are Sri Lanka, Kenya,
Malawi and Turkey. Britain is the largest tea
consumer.
Tea growing districts in Malawi are
Mulanje, Thyolo and Nkhata Bay. Large
companies own tea estates in the mentioned
districts, however there are smallholder
farmers who are also allowed to grow tea.
Favourable Conditions for Tea Growing
Rainfall of between 1150mm and
1500mm per annum
An average temperature of about 18
0
C
with no frost
Well drained heavy loamy soil on gentle
slopes.
High humidity that produces morning
which promotes the rapid growth of
young tea leaves
Abundant labour supply for harvesting
and harvesting
A cycle of tea growing operations
1. The nursery
Stem cuttings from healthy tea bushes are
raised in polythene tube.
Sometimes, seeds are sown on wet sand
where germination takes.
2. Cultivation
After 9 months to 1 year, the seedlings
are transplanted into the main fields in
rows..
3. Fertilizer application
Fertilizer is applied between September
and October using foliar method.
4. Pruning
Pruning starts during the fourth year of
growth.. this promotes the growth of tea
bushes.
The importance of pruning
To promote the growth of new tea
shoots.
To prevent flowering and fruiting.
It helps the tea bushes to form a
plucking table along the close hedge in
each row.
To produce a healthy and well spread
out canopy.
To maintain a convenient height for
easy harvesting.
5. Topping
Topping is the removal of tea tops; it helps
the growth of young tea leaves which are
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harvested. It helps the tea bushes to form a
plucking table to ease harvesting.
6. Harvesting
Two top leaves and a bud are plucked
because they have high tannic acid
content. Then, the leaves are taken to the
factory for processing. A lot of labour is
required for harvesting.
Processing Tea
The flow chart below shows how tea is
processed. There are three types of
processed tea.
a. Black tea
Tea leaves are put in a trough where
hot air is blown in older to reduce
moisture content through the process
known as fermentation.
Then they are rolled into smaller
pieces and fermented to change
colour from green to copper. This
helps to improve flavour.
Fermentation is stopped by heating
or firing the leaves. Tea produced
here is called black tea.
Finally, the leaves are sorted out,
graded and packed ready for sale.
b. Green tea
If green tea is wanted, fermentation is
not done. Tea leaves are pan-fired to
prevent fermentation. Other processes
remain the same as in black tea.
c. Oolong tea
Green tea leaves undergo partial
fermentation. After that, they are put in a
shade for 5 hours and roasted for 10
minutes. Then, they are rolled and
twisted before they are finally re-fired.
The whole process requires a lot of energy
that comes from electricity and wood. To the
north of the estate, there is blue gum
plantation which is a source of fuel wood.
Problems Faced by the Estate
Old tea bushes become tough and
affected by fungal diseases called
armilaria.
Smallholder Tea Farming
Smallholder farmers are also allowed to
grow tea because of the following reasons:
They do not require large land as tea is
high yielding
They have tea growing knowledge as
they already worked in the tea estates
before
They get alternative sources of income
Smallholder Tea Authority (STA))
It was created by the government where
farmers are allowed to grow tea on
contractual basis. The roles of STA are to:
Provide marketing functions to tea
farmers.
Transport tea from farmers to markets.
Maintain infrastructure such as roads
that facilitate transportation.
Procure inputs for farmers and provide
them as loan.
Provide credits to farmers.
Provide extension services to farmers.
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Countries that Import Malawi`s Tea
Germany, Holland, Pakistan, South Africa,
Great Britain, Canada, United States of
America and Central Europe
Importance of Malawi`s Tea Industry
It is source of foreign earnings to the
country
It provides income to tea growers after
selling
Tea is used as a drink
It provides employment to tea farmers
and those working in agro-based
industries.
It promotes the growth of secondary
industries
Health benefits of drinking tea
It is rich in vitamins and minerals.
It is a stimulant because it contains
caffeine which enhances mental
alertness.
It promotes digestion
Page 88 of 107
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TOPIC 20 INDUSTRIALISATION
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1 Explain the term industrialization
2 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of industrialisation explain the term
industrialization
3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of industrialisation explain the term
industrialization
4 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of industrialisation
Definition of the term industrialization
Industrialisation refers to the process in
which a society transforms itself from a
primarily agricultural society into the one
which centred on the manufacturing of
goods.
The development of industries started with
Industrial Revolution in UK in 1840. Then
the knowledge about Industrial Revolution
spread to other countries across Europe such
as Germany, Belgium and France as well as
Japan and USA.
Factors that influenced the start of
industrialisation
a. Invention and modern technologies such
as steam engine
b. Increasing human population that
provides labour and market.
c. Agricultural production which increased
food production.
d. Financial innovations like banks and
stock exchange market.
e. Coal and iron deposits.
f. Government policies that promote
commercial activities.
New inventions during the Industrial
Revolution
a. The flying shuttle for weaving using a
thread of yard by John Kay.
b. The spinning jenny by James
Hargreaves.
c. The water frame that replaced a hand-
driven spinning jenny by Richard
Arkwright.
d. The spinning mule that combined the
features of the spinning jenny and water
frame.
Characteristics of industrial revolution
Production is by hand rather by hand.
Expanded markets
Development of transport network
Increased capital accumulation
Growth in large enterprises and
increased specialization
Increase in size and predominance of
cities
Emphasis is concentrated to
manufacturing
Advantages of industrialisation
It increases employment opportunities
Working with large machines improves
efficiency of production rather than
human work.
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It increases the presence of affordable
goods since machines produce large
quantities of goods.
It improves skills amongst workers.
It helps countries to earn foreign
currency through exports of domestically
produced goods.
It helps to utilize available resources in
the country.
It aids the development of towns.
Disadvantages of industrialisation
Use of large machinery leads to
unemployment. Machines replace many
workers.
Burning of fossil fuels in industries
cause air pollution. This leads to serious
environmental problems like global
warming, depletion of ozone layer and
erratic rainfall.
Industries exploit natural resources that
damage ecosystem.
Dependence on machinery for
production leads to loss of human skills
and handcrafts.
Some industrial products and activities
cause severe accidents and disasters.
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TOPIC 21 INDUSTRY
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Identify types of industries, e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
2. Explain the meaning of the term system
3. Explain industry as a system in terms of inputs, processes and outputs
4. Identify the major industrialised areas on a world map
5. Describe factors influencing the location of major industrialised areas
6. Explain the risk and disaster management impact of industries.
INDUSTRIES
Industry is places where raw materials are
changed into new products. It is also defined
as the process of changing raw materials
into the finished products. An industry is an
open system because it consists of three
interrelated components which are inputs,
processes and outputs.
Characteristics of Industry as an Open
System
It collects inputs from the environment,
e.g. energy, labour, finance and seeds.
Turning or processing of inputs into
outputs, e.g. planting, marketing,
production
Outputs, i.e. goods and services are
produced as a result of processing.
It gets labour from environment
Types of Industries
There are four types of industries namely
a. Primary Industry
It produces raw materials from the
environment, such as agriculture,
fishing, forestry and mining.
b. Secondary Industry
It turns raw materials into finished
products. Industries that manufacture
new products with employed labour is
called factory. They include beer
brewing, textile, cement making and
soap making.
c. Tertiary Industry
It is concerned with distribution of goods
and provision of services. E.g. there are
postal services, transportation, teaching,
and extension services. Manufacturing
does not take place here.
d. Quaternary Services
There are research and provision of
information as well as expert evaluation
such as research and consultancy,
marketing and journalism.
Both tertiary and quaternary industries
are service industries.
Types of manufacturing industries
a. Heavy manufacturing industry
They use large and heavy machines
that occupy large space.
They are located on flat land.
They use large quantities (heavy
and bulky) of raw materials which
require them to be located near raw
materials.
There is hired labour and expertise.
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This requires high skills.
It requires less hired labour with it
without skills.
b. Light manufacturing industry
They use light machines that
occupy large space.
They use small quantities of raw
materials.
They produce small and high value
commodities such as tailoring,
bakery and weaving.
c. Cottage industry
It is located in the rural areas such
as craft, farming and basket making.
It is home based industry as it
depends on family members for
labour.
It uses simple tools such as knives.
There is no hired labour.
Factors for the location of industries
1. Labour supply
Skilled, unskilled and cheap labour is
essential for the growth and
development of industries.
2. Market
There must be a large population
provides market for the finished
products.
3. Capital
It is used for infrastructural
development, buying raw materials,
buying machinery and paying for
labour and other services.
4. Raw materials
Some industries are located to where
raw materials are found abundantly.
Locating industries near raw materials
saves costs of importing or transporting
them over long distances. Some
materials are bulky and heavy to be
carried over long distances.
5. Transport
It is used to transport raw materials and
dispatching finished products to various
points of consumption.
6. Water supply
Water is needed in the manufacturing
industries for mixing and cleaning
things.
7. Government policies
Some government policies may attract
or repel investors.
8. Political stability
Absence of wars and violence attracts
many foreign investors.
e. Industrial inertia
It refers to the tendency of an industry to
stay in an original place even if the
factors which led to its location are no
longer present.
The reasons for industrial inertia
High cost of physical transfer to a new
site.
Fear of losing customers in old site.
Fear of disrupting business by recruiting
and training new staff at the new site.
Proximity to skilled labour that has
relevant experience.
Desire to remain where business
developed its roots.
Presence of good transport and
communication structures in the old site.
Industries that are located in any place not
considering the presence of raw materials
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are called footloose industries. E.g. tourism
industry is an example of footloose industry.
Major Industrial Regions of the World
Western Europe
This is the largest industrial region of the
world. The countries include Germany, UK,
Spain and Portugal.
The factors for the development of
industries are as follows:
High levels of technology in
engineering, chemicals, textiles and
electronics
Availability of abundant power supply,
e.g. hydro-electricity, coal and nuclear
energy.
Availability of markets provided by
large town-based industrial population
North America
In this region there are Canada and USA.
The factors include:
Presence of rich mineral reserves, E.g.
iron and steel
Abundant source of energy.
Proximity to Europe for trade
Cheap transport for raw materials and
finished products, more especially in
the Great Lakes Region.
China and India
Large population densities that provide
labour and ready markets to finished
goods.
Easy access to water transport.
Presence of raw materials such as
cotton, steel, iron ore, tin and tin.
Abundant hydro-electric power supply.
Japan
Japan has the following factors:
Abundant power supply of coal, nuclear
and hydro-electricity.
Presence of large ports which facilitates
importation of raw materials and
exportation of finished products.
Presence of large markets in the
Mainland Asia.
Establishment of technically based
education that promotes the growth of
industries.
Australia
Abundant power supply, hydro-
electricity
Presence of rich mineral reserves of
aluminium, iron and steel.
Good water transport that aids import of
raw materials.
South Africa
Rich gold reserves which promote the
growth of other industries.
Good transport for importation of raw
materials.
Abundant labour from within the
SADC countries, like Malawi and
Mozambique.
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Others: Japan, South Korea and Argentina.
Disaster, hazard and disaster risk
management issues related to industries
Disaster is any sudden event that causes
much suffering to people during the time of
occurrence.
Hazard is a situation that poses threat to
human life, health, property and
environment.
Disaster risk management refers to the
systematic process that involves all activities
done before, during and after the occurrence
of a hazard event to prevent or reduce the
impact of a disaster.
Industries pose a lot of danger that affect
people and environment. Some of disasters
include the following:
a. Acid rain
Industries produce sulphur dioxide that
when it combines with water vapour in
the atmosphere it produces acid rain.
Acid rain destroys vegetation and
statutes.
b. Global warming
Burning of fossil fuel releases carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases that
absorb the sun’s heat and raise the
atmospheric temperature.
c. Ozone depletion
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) gases
produced from industries destroy ozone
layer and allow the sun’s ultraviolet rays
to reach the Earth’s surface where it
causes skin cancer in people.
d. Floods and land slides
Industries attract large populations that
settle in river side, wetlands and
lakeshore areas which accelerate silting
and flooding.
e. Epidemics
Industries cause social instability and
sexual exploitation which encourage the
spread of HIV/AIDS. In addition, high
population concentration facilitates the
spreading of disease outbreak.
f. Water and pollution
Industrial effluents deposited in water
cause water pollution.
g. Technological hazards
Gas and oil explosion
Industrial fire
Toxic and chemical release
Oil spills
Nuclear accidents
Plane crash
Car accidents
Train accidents
Wars and terrorist attacks
Disaster, hazard and disaster risk
management
Ensure proper storage of hazardous
materials
Workers should be provided with safety
tools and attire, such as fire
extinguishers and gloves.
Providing civic education and awareness
on the mitigation evacuation of people.
Upgrading structural designs of structure
that may withstand forces of
earthquakes.
Establishing early warning systems.
Recycling hazardous wastes in order to
reduce chances of disease infections.
Conducting safety audits.
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TOPIC 22 MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTTY IN JAPAN
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Locating Japan on a world map
2. Locate major industrial areas in Japan
3. Describe factors for the growth of the motor vehicle industry in Japan
4. Explain the stages of motor vehicle production
5. Explain advantages and disadvantages of automation/robot technology in motor vehicle
production
6. Explain the significance of the motor vehicle industry in Japan
Japan is made of four islands such as
Hokkaido, Honshu and Kyushu. Honshu is
the largest island and largest industrial area
in Japan.
Motor Vehicle Companies in Japan
Toyota is the largest car manufacturing
company in Japan and the world.
Others include the following:
Honda, Daihatsu, Yamaha , Mitsubishi,
Mazda, Nissan, Suzuki, Lexus, Isuzu,
Subaru and Kawasaki
Major Industrial Areas in Japan
a. Keihin or Kanto Industrial Region:
Chiba, Kanagawa, Saitama and Tokyo.
b. Nagoya Area or Chuky Takai
Industrial Region: Aichi, Gifu, Mie and
Shizuoka.
c. Kinki or Keihanshin
d. Setouchi or Southern Honshu and
Northern Honshu
e. Toyota City
Factors for the Growth of Motor Vehicle
Industry in Japan
Availability of iron and steel industries
which are the main raw materials for car
manufacturing industry.
Availability of local and international
markets
Presence of cheap transport for
assembled cars and car spares.
Presence of abundant power supply, i.e.
hydro-electricity land coal.
Availability of skilled labour for
technical work.
Stages in Motor Vehicle Production
Stage 1: Car Body Design
Computer-aided design (CAD) technology is
used to draw car models that suit people’s
lifestyle and preferences.
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Then clay models are constructed which are
then studied by motor vehicle manufacturing
experts to be accepted for production.
Stage 2: Building Production Technology
Car manufacturing tools (pressing machines)
are made. The machines are sued for
manufacturing cars in after the models are
accepted.
Stage 3: Production of Cars
There are activities in this stage such as:
a. Pressing
Steel sheets are pressed to make
different body parts, such as doors and
roof.
b. Body welding
The pressed metals are welded together
to create the desired body.
c. Painting
The car is painted to make it look shinny
and beautiful.
d. Assembling
Different autoparts are attached to body
of a car such as engine, wiring, interior
components, instruments, sensors,
breaks, glasses, stirring, tires, and
various microchips.
Stage 4: Inspection
Some car parts (breaks, headlights and
emission) are rigorously inspected for safety
purposes.
How Cars are Manufactured in Japan
The system used when manufacturing
cars is known as the Assembly Line
Technique or Taking Work to the
Worker.
Under the system, a conveyor belt is
used to bring parts to various points
along the line to be assembled. When a
car reaches the last point is now ready
for use.
Advantages of Assembly Line Technique
It leads to massive production
There is high quality production as
workers master their specialized skills.
It brings about specialization and
efficiency which speed up production.
There is easy maintenance as each part is
easily replaced with an identical one
within the point along the assembly line.
It creates high employment
opportunities.
There is low cost of paying workers.
Automation is easier.
Disadvantages of Assembly Line
Technique
There are low wages for less skilled
workers.
It involves high capital and energy
inputs.
It leads to boredom amongst workers
due repetitive and monotonous nature of
the work.
Automation in Car Manufacturing
Automation in car manufacturing involves
the application and use of robot technologies
to do the work. Robots replace workers in
some areas of car production.
Advantages of Automation
It promotes safety of workers. Robots
can work in work environment that
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would be difficult and hazardous to
human beings.
Work is done very quickly.
It increases production.
It saves payments for workers.
It reduces mistakes and boredom.
Disadvantages of Automation
Development of robots is very
expensive.
It leads to unemployment as one robot
may replace many workers.
Robots do not make decisions like
human beings; they depend on people to
do the work.
It needs more expertise.
Toyota Motor Corporation
It was founded in 1939 by a Japanese
engineer, Kiichiro Toyoda. It is the largest
car manufacturing company in the world.
There are many Toyota Companies in many
countries in the world.
Toyota cars have three major labels such as
Toyota, Lexus and SCION
Why Owning Cars is Scarce in Japan
a. There are high car parking fees.
b. There are high inspection fees for safety
standards.
c. Availability of excellent transport
network.
Reasons for Scattered Car Assembly
Plants
Serve the scattered markets all over
world.
Save the cost of transporting assembled
cars to the markets. It is more expensive
to transport assembled cars than the
spare parts.
Ensure that each factory has assembly
line and output size that maximizes
production
Take advantage of cheap land in regional
plants
To save the cost tax charges of exporting
cars.
Importance of Motor Vehicle Industry in
Japan
It provides employment opportunities
It provides better and comfortable means
of transport.
It promotes the growth of other related
industries to car manufacturing, e.g.
rubber industry.
It provides foreign exchange.
It promotes the development of
infrastructure, road network.
It promotes transport and trade within
and across the borders.
It helps people to enjoy a leisure time.
Problems Faced by Motor Vehicle
Industry in Japan
Global economic crisis that weaken the
purchasing power of cars.
Natural disasters such earthquakes and
volcanoes affect the industry.
Problems Associated with Motor Vehicle
Industry in Japan
Motor accidents
Air pollution by car exhausts
Noise in cities
Traffic jams that cause delay in
movement
Over-exploitation of fossil fuels.
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TOPIC 23 TOURISM IN AFRICA
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Locate major tourist centres in Africa
2. Explain factors that promote tourism in Africa
3. Explain the impact of tourism in Africa
4. Explain the meaning of the term eco-tourism
5. State the importance of eco-tourism
Tourism refers is a country`s economic
sector that involves travelling and visiting
different places of interest.
Aims of Tourism
Rest and relaxation
To see new places of interest
To study various parts of the world or to
have a research of the world
Major tourist centres in Africa
1. Pyramids of Giza and Egypt
2. Victoria Falls
3. Masai Mara National Park in Kenya
4. Kilimanjaro Mountain in Tanzania
5. Cape Town in South Africa
6. Djenne in Mali
7. Zanzibar
8. Lake Malawi National Park
9. Marrackech in Morocco
Major tourist centres in Malawi
Lake Malawi National Park
Mulanje Mountain
Liwonde National Park
Game Reserves like Nkhotakota, Mwavi,
Vwaza Marsh and Majete
Lake Malawi
National Parks, e. Kasungu, Nyika,
Liwonde, Lengwe and Lake Malawi
National Parks.
Types and Forms of Tourism
a. Ecotourism
It is a form of tourism which aims at
avoiding negative and brings positive
impact on the environment. It tries to
conserve and sustain ecosystem. It
involves a small group of tourists. It is
also known as green tourism, soft
tourism, responsible tourism,
appropriate tourism and alternative
tourism.
Advantages of ecotourism
It promotes conservation of
environment
It does not interfere with ecological
balance.
The money raised in ecotourism
helps to preserve natural
environment
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Disadvantages of ecotourism
Reduced employment opportunities
The government gets less money
from few tourists.
Tourists use air transport in remote
areas which causes air pollution.
It uses relocation of people so as not
to interfere with ecosystem.
b. Mass tourism: It involves a large group
of tourists. It brings negative effect on
the environment.
Advantages of mass tourism
It brings a lot of money as a large
number of tourists visit the country.
Many people get employment.
It strengthens international relations
as many people different counties
come together.
Disadvantages of mass tourism
It depletes natural resources since
more land is needed for
infrastructural development.
Loss of traditional values due to
interaction with local inhabitants.
It causes pollution due to increased
consumption of resources.
c. Incentive tourism: it is a travel warded
by commissions or organisations.
d. Health tourism: it is a visit to health
resorts and establishment made by either
medical or non-medical personnel.
e. Domestic tourism: it is travel by
indigenous population of the country.
f. Common interest tourism: It is a form
of tourism by people who have a cultural
interest.
Factors that promote tourism in Africa
a. Physical Factors
Attractive scenery like mountains and
forests
Pleasant climate
b. Economic Factors
Accessibility by air, water and road
Good accommodation (hotels and
motels)
Good shops, entertainment centres, good
food, tour guides and travel agents
c. Cultural Factors
Historical sites
Entertainment centres
Impact of Tourist Industry
1. Positive impact
It provides employment to many people
in various sectors such as transport,
hotels, construction and manufacturing
It is source of foreign exchange earnings
It puts the destination centres on a map
It helps to bring international standards
to destination countries
It promotes international understanding
and public relations
It promotes development of small scale
industries, e.g. wood carving.
It helps to improve the country`s
infrastructure, such as roads and airports.
2. Negative impact
Employment is seasonal
It is affected by some devastating
factors like disease outbreaks, wars
and natural disasters
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Breakdown of traditional values as a
result of influx of large number of
visitors.
Pressure on resources in a host
country
Reduced food production as farmers
lose farming land to tourism
infrastructural development.
It brings foreign diseases into the
country.
Employment is seasonal which puts
local workers at a disadvantage in
one season.
Breakdown of traditional values as a
result of influx of large number of
visitors.
The interaction between different cultures is
called assimilation. It is also known as
acculturation or accommodation. On the
other hand, demonstration effect refers to
imitating other people`s behaviour and
assimilate it as one`s own.
Problems faced by tourism industry in
Africa
Foreign ownership of hotels and tourist
resorts that send money to their countries
at the expense of host countries.
It is expensive to visit tourism
destinations.
Heavy tax on tourism services prevents
some tourists from visiting some places.
Poor and inadequate infrastructure such
hotels and poor road conditions in some
parts.
Malaria scares away visitors.
Poaching and deforestation reduce
important animal and plant species
which attract many tourists.
Political instability in many African
countries.
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TOPIC 24 MAJOR WORLD TRANSPORT ROUTES
Success Criteria
Learners must:
1. Identify the major sea and air routes of the world
2. Explain the importance of the major sea and air routes
3. Explain the challenges faced by land-locked countries
4. Identify the major railway lines in Africa
5. Explain reasons for the distribution of railway networks in Africa
Transportation refers to physical carriage of
goods and services from one place to
another.
The main modes of transport are
Air transport
Water transport
Land transport
Factors to Consider when Choosing the
Type of Transport
The nature of goods to be transported.
Some goods are more perishable than the
other and that perishable goods need
specialized type of transport. For
example, milk requires refrigerated
transport.
The cost of transporting it
The speed at which goods are to be
transported
Comparative running costs of water, rail,
road and air transport
Below is an explanation of the diagram
1. Water transport is the cheapest mode
over a long distance.
2. Rail transport is relatively cheap over
medium distances.
3. Road transport is the cheapest over a
short distance but the costs increase with
an increase in distance.
4. Air transport is the most expensive.
Air Transport
It uses aeroplanes, helicopters and balloons.
It carries passengers and high value goods.
Advantages of Air Transport
It is fastest
It uses direct routes
It is relatively free of physical barriers
such as mountains and valleys
It can reach other areas which are not
accessible by other means of transport.
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It is used for the military to support the
national security systems
Disadvantages of Air Transport
It very expensive
Airports are located away from towns
There is a limited carrying capacity
Airplanes cannot use foreign air space
without permission well in advance
It cannot transport heavy and bulky
goods
Bad weather condition causes accidents
Plane accidents are severely dangerous
Water Transport
Water transport is categorized into inland
water way that uses lakes, rivers and canals
as well as ocean or sea transport
Advantages of Water Transport
It uses existing routes except in case of
canals
It is the cheapest means of transport for
large quantities of goods.
Water accidents are rare
It promotes international trade.
Main Disadvantages of Water Transport
It uses indirect routes
High cost of construction and
maintenance of ports
It is very slow
If is negatively affected by physical
factors like storms, fog and ice that
cause accidents
The Main Ships that Sail on the Oceans
a. Passenger ships: They carry passengers
and mail
b. Cargo ships: They carry freight such as
container ships, oil tankers
c. Cargo liners: They carry people and
freight
d. Packets: Type of ship used for crossing
narrow straits. They are sometimes
called ferry-packets.
e. Others: Dredgers that deepen the ports
and Ice breaker
The Main World`s Sea Routes
North Atlantic Route
It is a busiest and richest route
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It connects North American Region and
Western Europe
Goods carried from America to Europe
are wheat, cotton, copper, steel, iron and
tobacco
Goods from Europe to America are
textiles, machinery, wine, fertilizer and
chemicals.
Cape Route
It connects Europe with Australia
It passes through South Africa Cape of
Good hope
It was very much used when Suez Canal
was closed. Its importance has declined
by the reopening of Suez Route in 1975.
South American Route or South Atlantic
Route
It connects South America with Europe
Suez Canal
Connects Red Sea and Mediterranean
Sea, Europe with Asia and Australia
It is 160km long
It has no lock gates that delay transport
There are two towns such as Suez on
Red Sea side and Port Said on
Mediterranean side
Goods from Far Eat to Europe are
petroleum, coffee, timber, wheat, meat
and sugar while from Europe to Far East
there are machinery, cars, drugs, textiles
and chemicals
Panama Canal
It connects east and west coasts of North
America.
The two towns are Panama City on a
Pacific side and Colon on Atlantic side.
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It has three sets of locks that delay
transit time. It also does not allow big
ships to pass.
Is 80km long but ships take longer time
to pass than Suez because it has three
lock gates whereas Suez has no lock
gates that delay movement of ships.
Lock gates are the structures along a
canal which help ships to by-pass the
rapids.
It connects eastern and western coasts of
North America with Asia and Europe
St. Lawrence Seaway
It connects the Great Lakes Region and
the Atlantic Coast through St. Lawrence
River.
It has about four lock gates.
The goods transported here are iron ore,
wheat, timber, furs and coal.
The disadvantage is that it is closed in
winter four months because it freezes.
Another disadvantage is that it is narrow
that it is difficult to accommodate large
ships.
Lock Gate Operation
A lock is a structure that enables a ship to
bypass the rapids or waterfalls. It is costly to
construct, operate and maintain locks. Lock
operation also delays transit. The lock
operation is as follows:
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A. The gates are opened as the ship is
approaching B because water level is the
same between A and B.
B. Both gates are closed to allow water
level rise with the sheep. This enables
the sheep to pass through gate M.
C. Gate ahead the ship is opened so as to
allow the ship to pass.
Factors that Influence Ocean Routes
Supply and demand: availability of
goods and passengers to be carried.
Availability of ports
Absence of physical barriers like fog,
icebergs and storms
Nature of cargo
Land Transport
There are two main types of land transport
such road and railway transport.
Road transport
It uses taxis, buses, lorries and tankers. Ox
wagons use roads. Some people also travel
on foot as pedestrians.
Advantages of Road Transport
Road transport is very convenient
Roads provide direct link between
producers and consumers
It provides direct link between
producers and consumers
It is fast over short distance
It is flexible as it provides door to door
service.
Disadvantages of Road Transport
It is expensive to transport heavy and
bulky goods
High incidences of road accidents
It is affected by traffic jams in cities and
towns.
Since many people own cars, it is the
most polluting means of transport.
Bad weather conditions negatively affect
road transport.
It causes noise pollution
Advantages of railway transport
It carries large amount of commodities at
once.
Rail accidents are very rare
It is fast over long distances as compared
to road and water transport.
It is not affected by traffic congestion on
rails.
It is cheaper to transport heavy and
bulky goods.
Disadvantages of rail transport
Deep valleys and mountains prevent the
construction of rail lines and roads
High overhead expenses and running
costs of railways
High costs of laying and maintaining
railway tracks and sleepers
High costs of construction and upkeep of
rail station
It does not provide door to door service
Factors that Affect Rail Distribution in
Africa
Railway lines are not evenly distributed in
Africa due to a number of reasons. Some
regions do not have even one while others
have dense rail connectivity as illustrated in
the figure below.
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The main factors that affect railway
connectivity in Africa are:
Relief of the area
Productivity of the area
Availability of fuel to be used by railway
transport
Level of economic development of the
area served by railway
Frequency of thunderstorms, sandstorms
and landslides
Reasons for Low or High Rail
Connectivity in Some Parts of Africa
a. North Africa
The area is very unproductive
Sandstorms cover railways
Absence of settlement in the Sahara
desert
b. North East Africa
There are very high Ethiopian
highlands with their escarpments and
deep valleys
c. Central Africa
Frequent thunderstorms and lightening
Landslides are common due to
continuous rainfall in the Equatorial
climate
Presence of mountains, such as
Kilimanjaro, Elgon and Ruwenzori
Low level of economic activities
d. Southern Africa
There are a lot of economic activities,
E.g. mining, farming and
manufacturing industries
Nacala Railway
a. It runs from Bilila in Malawi to Nacala
port in the Indian ocean, a distance of
690km long
b. It is connects Malawi with Indian ocean
c. Goods to Malawi are agricultural
products (sugar, tobacco, tea, maize) and
raw materials while from Nacala include
finished products like fertilizer,
machinery, chemicals, textile and
stationary.
Tazara Railways
It is an acronym for Tanzania and
Zambia Railway (TAZARA).
It extends from Kapiri Mpochi in
Zambia to Dar-es-Salaam a distance of
1667km long.
It provides alternate outlet for Zambia to
the sea
The only disadvantage is that port of
Dar-es-Salaam is congested which leads
to delays in handling cargo.
Tazara and Nacala Railway Lines
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Trans- Canadian Railways
There are two main railways namely:
a. Canadian National Railway (5600km
long)
It joins Port Halifax on the Atlantic
Coast and Prince Rupert on the Pacific
Coast
b. Canadian Pacific Railway (4800 long)
It connects St. John on Atlantic
Coast and Vancouver on the Pacific
side. Goods exported through these
railways include wheat, pulp, iron
ore, oil, fertilizers, and coal.
The main disadvantage with these
railway lines is that they are closed
in winter as they are blocked by ice.
Road transport is cheaper than rail and
ship over a short distance but it is most
expensive over a long distance. Ship is very
expensive over a short distance but the
cheapest means over a long distance.
Importance of the world transport
It promotes trade and industrial
development
It helps to improve the living standards
of people by transporting life sustaining
goods to their homes.
It facilitates the rescue systems in times
of emergencies.
It creates employment opportunities.
It allows labour mobility as people move
to different parts seeking job
opportunities.
Problems of the world transport
It causes fatal accidents
Burning of fossil fuels in locomotives
causes air pollution.
Increased number of cars, ships,
aeroplanes and trains deplete fossil fuels.
Deforestation due to road and rail
construction.
Displacement of people and animals due
to the construction of transport
infrastructure.
Page 107 of 107
Geography syllabus-based teaching and learning summaries: written and compiled by J. H. Holly
(O994798236/0888330414)
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